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History of Dharmashastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v2.c34: Chapter XVII. Āhnika and Ācāra (Daily and periodical duties and ceremonies)

History of Dharmaśāstra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v2.c34

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Chapter XVII. Āhnika and Ācāra (Daily and periodical duties and ceremonies)

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ĀHNIKA AND ĀCĀRA

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This forms a very important topic of dharmaśāstra. The daily duties of the *brahmacārin* have been already described above and those of the *vānaprastha* and *yati* will be spoken of later on. Under this section we are concerned principally with the duties of the *snātaka* (the would-be householder) and the *gṛhastha* (the householder).

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Before the *āhnika* duties are described a few remarks about the importance of the stage of householder would not be out of place. It has already been shown (pp. 424-425) how one school of dharmaśāstra writers represented by Gautama and Baudhāyana looked upon the stage of householder as the only *āśrama*. The eulogies of the householder are sung in numerous passages of the Dharmaśāstra works. Gaut.¹⁴⁹⁸ (III. 3) declares that the householder is the source (support) of all the other āśramas, because the other three do not produce offspring. Manu (III. 77-78) states that as all creatures live by receiving support from the air, so other āśramas subsist by relying for support on the householder and that as men belonging to all the three other orders (*āśramas*) are supported from day to day by the householder alone with (gifts of) food and sacred knowledge, the householder's is therefore the most excellent āśrama. Manu (VI. 89-90) reiterates the same sentiments under a different figure 'just as all big and small rivers find a resting place in the ocean, so men of all *āśramas* find support in the householder and the householder is declared to be the most excellent of all the āśramas by the precepts of the Veda and smṛtis, since he supports the other three'. Viṣṇu Dh. S. (59. 27-29) contains almost the same remarks as Manu. Vide Vas. VIII. 14-16 (15 being identical with Manu VI. 90). Vas. VII. 17 (and X. 31), Baud. Dh. S. II. 2. 1, Udyogaparva 40. 25 say that a householder observing the rules laid down for him does not fall away from the world of Brahma.¹⁴⁹⁹ In the Mahābhārata also the eulogy of the order of householder is frequent. Śāntiparva 296. 39 is the same as Manu VI. 90. Śānti 270. 6-7 states 'as all beings live on the support given by their mothers, so other āśramas subsist on the support of the order of householders'.¹⁵⁰⁰ In the same chapter (verses 10-11) Kapila condemns those who hold that *mokṣa* (final release from *saṁsāra*) is not possible for him who remains a householder. Śānti 12. 12 holds that, if weighed in the balance, the order of householders is equal to all the other three put together. Vide also Śānti 11. 15, 23. 2-5, Vanaparva chap. 2. The Ayodhyākāṇḍa 106. 22 also says that the stage of householder is the most excellent of all āśramas.

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¹⁴⁹⁸ तेषां गृहस्थो योनिरप्रजनत्वादितरेषाम् । गौ. III. 3.

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¹⁴⁹⁹ नित्योदकी नित्ययज्ञोपवीती नित्यस्वाध्यायी पतितान्नवर्जी। ऋतौ च गच्छन्वि-धिवच्च जुह्वन्न ब्राह्मणश्च्यवते ब्रह्मलोकात् ॥ वसिष्ठ VIII. 17 (X. 31 is the same in prose). Vide note 691 above.

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¹⁵⁰⁰ यथा मातरमाश्रित्य सर्वे जीवन्ति जन्तवः । एवं गार्हस्थ्यमाश्रित्य वर्तन्त इतरा-श्रमाः ॥ शान्तिपर्व 270. 6-7 (= Vas. VIII. 16, where the last pāda is सर्वे जीवन्ति भिक्षुकाः).

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The brāhmaṇa householder is again divided into several varieties from different points of view. Baud. Dh. S. III. 1. 1, Devala (quoted in the Mit. on Yāj. I. 128) and other works divide a householder into two varieties viz. śālīna and yāyāvara,¹⁵⁰¹ the latter being superior to the former.¹⁵⁰² The śālīna is one who dwells in a house, is possessed of servants and cattle, has a fixed place and a fixed village and has grain and wealth and follows the life of worldly people; the yāyāvara is one who subsists by the best of livelihood, viz. picking up grains that fall down when the corn that is reaped is taken to the house or threshing floor by the owner and who does not accumulate wealth or who does not earn his livelihood by officiating as priest, or by teaching or by accepting gifts. Manu (IV. 7) appears to divide brāhmaṇa householders into four varieties, viz. one who possesses enough to fill a granary or a store filling a corn jar, one who collects as much as will satisfy his needs for.three days, or one who makes no provision for the morrow. Vide Śāntiparva 244. 1-4 and Laghu-Viṣṇu II. 17 for similar statements. The Mit on Yāj. I. 128 says that ‘śālīna is of four varieties viz. (1) one who maintains himself by officiating as a priest, teaching Veda, accepting gifts, agriculture, trade and breeding cattle, (2) one who subsists by the first three out of the above six, (3) one who subsists by officiating as a priest and by teaching, (4) one who subsists by teaching alone. Manu IV. 9 (as interpreted by the Mit.) refers to these four varieties. The Āp. Śr. (V. 3. 22) distinguishes between śālīna and yāyāvara.¹⁵⁰³ The Baud. gṛ. III. 5. 4 refers to yāyāvara. The word ‘yāyāvara’ occurs in the Tai. S. V. 2. 1. 7¹⁵⁰⁴ ‘therefore the active man lords it over one who is easy-going’; but here the word has not probably any technical sense.

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¹⁵⁰¹ अथ शालीन-यायावर-चक्रचरधर्माकाङ्क्षिणां नवभिर्वृत्तिभिर्वर्तमानानाम् । शाला-श्रयत्वाच्छालीनत्वम् । वृत्या वरया यातीति यायावरत्वम् । अनुक्रमेण चरणाच्चक्रचरत्वम् । बौ. ध. सू. III. 1. 1., 3-5. बौ. derives शालीन from शाला (a house) and यायावर from या (to go) and वर (best). पाणिनि V. 2. 20 (which is explained in the Mahābhāṣya) teaches that शालीन in the sense of bashful (अधृष्ट) is derived from शाला. Probably in Pāṇini's day householders had not come to be divided into शालीन and यायावर. बौ. appears to hold that there is a third variety called चक्रचर, but this does not occur elsewhere.

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¹⁵⁰² यथाह देवलः। द्विविधो गृहस्थो यायावरः शालीनश्च । तयोर्यायावरः प्रवरो याजनाध्यापनप्रतिग्रह रिक्थ संचयवर्जनात् । षट्कर्माधिष्ठितः प्रेष्यचतुष्पादगृहग्रामधनधान्य-युक्तो शालीनः । इति । शालीनोपि चतुर्विधः । याजनाध्यापनप्रतिग्रहकृषिवाणिज्यपशु-पाल्यैः षड्भिर्जीवत्येकः । याजनादिभिस्त्रिभिरन्यः । याजनाध्यापनाभ्यामपरः । चतुर्थस्त्वध्या-पनेनैव । मिता. on या. I. 128. कुसूलधान्यको वा स्यात्कुम्भीधान्यक एव वा । त्र्यहैहिको वापि भवेदश्वस्तनिक एव वा ॥ मनु IV. 7. मेधा० explains the kusūla as a granary built with bricks and indicates that he may store in it as much as such a granary will hold; while *kumbhī* means a receptacle storing as much as will last for six months. हारीत quoted in Gr. R. derives 'सर्वा-स्ववस्थासु बह्वक्षोस्य शाला इति शालीनः शालावानिति वा शालीनः शालायामात्मवृत्तिभिर्वा लीनः शालीनः । शालीनादात्मवृत्तिमापनाद्वर इति यायावरः । दश दश रात्रीर्वसन्त्यातीति यायावरः । परास्त्विष्टसु वृत्तिष्वात्मानं यापयतीति यायावरः । ...... अथास्याष्टौ वृत्तयो भवन्ति । उञ्छशिलायाचितोपपन्नसंवर्शनभवस्कन्धकुद्दालकपोती । (pp. 415 and 419).

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¹⁵⁰³ उद्ध्वसाय शालीन आदधीतानुद्धवसाय यायावरीयः। आप. श्रौ. V. 3. 22. The com. रुद्रदत्त explains यायावर as यात्वा यात्वा यत्र क्वचन वासीति.

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¹⁵⁰⁴ तस्माद्यायावरः क्षेम्यस्येशे। तै. सं. V. 2. 1. 7.

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In the Vaik. VIII. 5¹⁵⁰⁵ (= Vaik. Dh. S. I. 5) householders are divided into four classes. The first class (called vārtāvṛtti)

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¹⁵⁰⁵ गृहस्थाश्चतुर्विधा वार्त्तावृत्तिः शालीनवृत्तिर्यायावरो घोरन्चारिकश्चेति। वार्त्ता-वृत्तिः कृषिगोरक्ष्यवाणिज्योपजीवी। शालीनवृत्तिर्नियमैर्युतः पाकयज्ञैरिष्ट्वाहीनाधाय पक्षे पक्षे दर्शपूर्णमासयाजी चतुर्षु चतुर्षु मासेषु चातुर्मास्ययाजी षट्सु षट्सु मासेषु पशुबन्धयाजी प्रतिसंवत्सरं सोमयाजी च। यायावरो हविर्यज्ञैः सोमयज्ञैश्च यजते याजयत्यधीते ऽध्यापयति ददाति प्रतिगृह्णाति षट्कर्मनिरतो नित्यमग्निपरिचरणमतिथिभ्योऽभ्यागतेभ्योऽन्नाद्यं च कुरुते। घोरन्चारिको नियमैर्युक्तो यजते न याजयत्यधीते नाध्यापयति ददाति न प्रतिगृह्णाति उञ्छ-वृत्तिमुपजीवति नारायणपरायणः सायं प्रातरग्निहोत्रं हुत्वा मार्गशीर्ष-ज्येष्ठमासयोरसिधाराव्रतं वनौषधिभिरग्निपरिचरणं करोति। वैखानसगृह्य VIII. 5. Vide also IV. 2 for शालीन and यायावर. The असिधाराव्रत according to the com. consists in standing in water for tapas in मार्गशीर्ष and in the midst of five fires in ज्येष्ठ. The असिधाराव्रत is differently defined in other works. Vide नीतिशतक of भर्तृहरि verse 64 (Telang’s ed.) ‘प्रदानं प्रच्छन्नं...विषममसिधाराव्रतमिदम्.’

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maintains itself by agriculture, cattle-rearing and trade; the second (*śālīna*) observes various *niyamas* (vide Yāj. III. 313), offers pākayajñas (sacrifices of cooked food), kindles the śrauta fires, offers the darśa and pūrṇamāsa sacrifices each half month, offers cāturmāsyas, in each half year offers an animal sacrifice and each year the soma sacrifice; the third (*yāyāvara*) is engaged in the six actions viz. offering sacrifices of *havis* and *soma*, officiating as priest at such sacrifices, studying the Veda and teaching it, making gifts and receiving them, constantly attends his fires (śrauta and smārta), and gives food to guests. that come to him; the fourth (called ghorācārika, one whose rules are awfully difficult to observe) is observant of niyamas, offers sacrifices but does not officiate at others' sacrifices, studies the Veda but does not teach it, makes gifts but does not receive them, maintains himself on corn fallen in the fields &c., is absorbed in Nārāyaṇa, performs agnihotra in the morning and evening, in Mārgaśīrṣa and Jyeṣṭha performs observances that are like the edge of a sword and attends upon his fires with herbs from a forest. These four names occur also in Bṛhat-Parāśara p. 290 (Jīvānanda's ed.).

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In numerous smṛtis, purāṇas and digests the duties of householders have been described in detail. For example, vide Gaut. V and IX, Āp. Dh. S. II. 1. 1–II. 4. 9, Vas. Dh. S. VIII. 1–17 and XI. 1–48, Manu IV, Yāj. I. 96–127, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 60–71, Dakṣa II, Vedavyāsa III, Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa 29–30 and 34, Nṛsiṁha-purāṇa 58. 45–106, Kūrmapurāṇa (uttarārdha chap. 15–16), Laghu-Hārīta IV. p. 183 ff (Jīvānanda), Droṇaparva 82, Vanaparva 2. 53–63, Āśvamedhika 45. 16–25, Anuśāsana-parva 97. Among the digests may be mentioned the Sm. C. (I. pp. 88–232), the Smṛtyarthasāra (pp. 18–48), the Madanapārijāta (pp. 204–345), the Gṛhastharatnākara, the Āhnikatattva of Raghunandana, the Vīramitrodaya (Āhnikaprakāśa), the Smṛtimuktāphala (Āhnikakāṇḍa). It would be impossible to present in the space at our disposal all the details of the duties of the householder contained in the vast sources indicated above. Some of the usual, outstanding or important matters alone can be dealt with here. Some of the works contain moral exhortations to the householder. For example, the Anuśāsanaparva¹⁵⁰⁶ (141. 25–26)

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¹⁵⁰⁶ अहिंसा सत्यवचनं सर्वभूतानुकम्पनम् । शमो दानं यथाशक्ति गार्हस्थ्यो धर्म उत्तमः ॥ परदारेष्वसंसर्गो न्यासस्त्रीपरिरक्षणम् । अदत्तादानविरमो मधुमांसस्य वर्जनम् । एष पञ्चविधो धर्मो बहुशाखः सुखोदयः ॥ अनुशासनपर्व 141. 25–26.

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says 'ahiṁsā, truthfulness, compassion towards all beings, quiescence, charity according to one's ability—this is the best dharma for a gṛhastha (householder). Non-contact with the wives of others, guarding one's wife and deposit (made by another), abstaining from taking what is not given (by the owner), avoiding honey and meat—this five-fold dharma has many branches and gives rise to happiness.' Dakṣa (II. 66-67) also has similar provisions. But such moral exhortations (called sādhāraṇa dharmas) have already been discussed above (pp. 3-11).

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From very ancient times there were several ways of dividing the day. Sometimes the word 'ahaḥ' is distinguished from night and sometimes it stands for the period from sunrise to sunrise (and includes day and night). For example, in Ṛg. VI. 9. 1 we have¹⁵⁰⁷ the dark day (i. e. night) and the bright day (i. e. the period when there is light). This part (viz. the period of sunlight) is divided sometimes into two parts viz. pūrvāhṇa (period before noon) and aparāhṇa (the time after noon) *Vide* Ṛg. X. 34. 11, Manu III. 278. Day time is also divided into three parts, morning, midday and evening, which correspond to the three libations of Soma juice in prātaḥsavana, mādhyandina-savana and tṛtīya-savana. *Vide* Ṛg. III. 53. 8 where these three parts of the day are mentioned when Indra comes to drink Soma for a *muhūrta* each time and III. 28. 1, 4 and 5 (where all three savanas are named) and III. 32. 1, III. 52. 5-6. The day (of 12 hours) was often divided into five parts,¹⁵⁰⁸ viz. *prātaḥ* or *udaya* (sunrise), *saṁgava*, *mādhyandina* or *madhyāhna* (mid-day), *aparāhṇa* (afternoon) and *sāyāhna* or *astagamana* or *sāyam* (evening). Each of these five parts of day time will be equal to three muhūrtas. In some smṛtis and purāṇas these five parts are mentioned and defined; e. g. in the Prajāpatismṛti, vv. 156-157, Matsyapurāṇa 22. 82-84, 124. 88-90, Vāyu 50. 170-174. Vide Aparārka p. 465 (on Yāj. I. 226) where a *śruti* passage and verses from Vyāsa are quoted about these five parts.¹⁵⁰⁹ The whole day of twenty-four hours was divided into thirty muhūrtas; vide Śat. Br. XII. 3. 2. 5, S. B. E. vol. 44, p. 169 where the year is said to have 10800 muhūrtas (360 x 30). The Tai. Br. III. 10. 1 gives the names of the fifteen muhūrtas of day-time, such as Citra, Ketu &c.

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¹⁵⁰⁷ अहश्च कृष्णमहरर्जुनं च विवर्तेते रजसी वेद्याभिः। वैश्वानरो जायमानो न राजावातिरञ्ज्योतिषाग्निस्तमांसि॥ ऋ. VI. 9. 1. This verse is explained in the निरुक्त II. 21 ' अहश्च कृष्णं रात्रिः शुक्लं च अहरर्जुनम्। &c. '

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¹⁵⁰⁸ उता यातं संगवे प्रातरह्नो मध्यन्दिन उदिता सूर्यस्य। ऋ. V. 76. 3. Here प्रातः, संगव and मध्यन्दिन are expressly named. संगव is the time of milking the cows after they return from grazing pastures to which they were taken at dawn. Vide आश्व. श्रौ. III. 12. 1-2 प्रदोषान्तो होमकालः संगवान्तः प्रातः on which the com. says ' यस्मिन्काले गावो वत्सैः सहाासते स संगवः कालः तावत्पर्यन्तं प्रातर्होमकालः'. तस्मा उद्यन्त्सूर्यो हिङ्करोति संगवः प्रस्तौति। मध्यन्दिन उद्गायत्यपराह्लः प्रतिहरत्यस्तं यन्निधनम् ॥ अथर्ववेद IX. 5. 4-5.

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¹⁵⁰⁹ प्रातःकालो मुहूर्तांस्त्रीन्संगवस्तावदेव तु। मत्स्य 22. 82; रेखाप्रभृत्यथादित्ये त्रिमुहूर्ते गते रवौ। प्रातस्तनः स्मृतः कालो भागः सोऽह्रस्तु पञ्चमः॥ विष्णुपुराण quoted by कुल्लूक on मनु 3. 280.

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The Madanapārijāta p. 496 quotes Vyāsa for the fifteen parts of the day.

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The smṛtis however generally divide day-time into eight parts. Dakṣa II. 4-5 divides the day into eight parts and then treats at length about the duties to be performed during those eight parts. Kātyāyana divides day-time into eight parts and asks the king to assign three parts after the first to the investigation of judicial proceedings.¹⁵¹⁰ That this was a very ancient division follows from several considerations. Kauṭilya¹⁵¹¹ divides the day and night each into eight parts and prescribes what the king is to do in the eight parts of the day and also in the eight parts of the night. Vas. XI. 36, Laghu-Hārīta 99, Laghu-Śātātapa v. 108 say 'the sun becomes mild-rayed in the 8th part of the day and that time is called kutapa'.¹⁵¹² The Kādambarī of Bāṇa (para 24) speaks of the light of the sun becoming clear and bright in the first eighth part of the day.¹⁵¹³ In the Mahābhārata frequent reference is made to the sixth part of the day as a somewhat late hour for taking one's meal (and as making one hungry). Vide Vanaparva 179. 16, 180. 16, 293. 9, Āśvamedhika parva 90. 26-27.¹⁵¹⁴

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¹⁵¹⁰ आद्यादष्टोऽष्टभागादूर्ध्वं भागत्रयं भवेत् । स कालो व्यवहारस्य शास्त्रदृष्टो मनीषिभिः॥ कात्यायन quoted by अपरार्क p. 601 (on Yāj. II. 1.)

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¹⁵¹¹ नाडिकाभिरहरष्टधा रात्रिं च विभजेत् छायाप्रमाणेन वा। द्वितीये पौरजानपदानां कार्याणि पश्येत्। अर्थशास्त्र I. 19. According to the ब्रह्मपुराण, two नाडिकाs are equal to a मुहूर्त 'नाडिकाभ्यामथ द्वाभ्यां मुहूर्तो द्विजसत्तमाः।.' The सूर्यसिद्धान्त (मध्यमाधिकार v. 12) has 'नाडीषष्ट्या तु नाक्षत्रमहोरात्रं प्रकीर्तितम्॥'

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¹⁵¹² दिवसस्याष्टमे भागे मन्दीभवति भास्करः। स कालः कुतपो ज्ञेयः पितॄणां दत्तमक्षयम्॥ वसिष्ठ XI. 36.

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¹⁵¹³ न चिरादिव दिवसस्याष्टमभागभाजि स्पष्टभासि भास्वति भूते । कादम्बरी para 24.

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¹⁵¹⁴ षष्ठे काले मयाहारः प्राप्तोऽयमनुजस्तव। वनपर्व 180. 16; षष्ठे षष्ठे तदा काले बभूव मितभोजनः। वनपर्व 293. 9.

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The principal matters to be discussed under *āhnika* are: getting up from bed, *śauca* (bodily purity), *dantadhāvana* (brushing the teeth), *snāna* (bath), *saṁdhyā*, *tarpaṇa*, the five *mahāyajñas* (including brahmayajña and honouring guests), attending on fire, *bhojana* (mid-day meal), obtaining wealth, studying and teaching, evening saṁdhyā, gifts, going to bed, performing sacrifices at certain stated times. The Parāśara smṛti I. 39 summarises the most important daily duties as bathing, performing the saṁdhyā prayers, japa, homa, worship of gods and honouring of guests, and vaiśvadeva are the six (principal) daily actions.¹⁵¹⁵ Manu (IV. 152 = Anuśāsana parva 104. 23) also enumerates in one place the principal daily actions that must be got through in the morning viz. answering calls of nature, toilet, bathing, brushing the teeth, applying collyrium to the eyes and worship of the gods¹⁵¹⁶.

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¹⁵¹⁵ संध्या स्नानं जपो होमो देवतातिथिपूजनम् । आतिथ्यं वैश्वदेवं च षट् कर्माणि दिने दिने ।। पराशर I. 39.

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¹⁵¹⁶ मैत्रं प्रसाधनं स्नानं दन्तधावनमञ्जनम्। पूर्वाह्न एव कुर्वीत देवतानां च पूजनम् ॥ मनु IV. 152. मित्र is the presiding deity over the anus and so *maitra* means mūtrapurīṣotsarga.

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Although as stated in the Sūryasiddhānta¹⁵¹⁷ the day was calculated from sunrise, daytime for practical purposes was extended for a short time before sunrise and after sunrise. According to the Brahmavaivarta-purāṇa the four *nāḍīs* (or *ghaṭikās*) before sunrise and the four *nāḍīs* after sunset are included in daytime (*dina*) i. e. when a man takes his bath before sunrise on a particular day that bath is one for the day that is to begin after he takes his bath¹⁵¹⁸. Several smṛtis like Manu IV. 92, Yāj. I. 115 enjoin that a man should get up from bed at the brāhma muhūrta,¹⁵¹⁹ should reflect over *dharma* and *artha* that he would seek to attain that day and over the bodily efforts that he would have to undergo for securing his object and think out the real meaning of Vedic injunctions. Kullūka and others say that the word *muhūrta* in Manu IV. 92 means only time generally and not a period of two ghaṭikās and that it is called brāhma because that is a time when one's intelligence and one's power to compose a literary work are at their best. The Par. M. (I. 1. p. 220)¹⁵²⁰ says that there are two muhūrtas in the half watch before sunrise, the first of the two is called brāhma and the second raudra. Pitāmaha quoted in the Sm. C. (I. p. 88) says that the last watch of the night is called 'brāhma muhūrta'. From very early times getting up before sunrise was prescribed specially for a student and generally for everyone. Gaut. 23. 21 says that if the sun rose while a brahmacārin was asleep he should stand up the whole day without food and mutter the Gāyatrī throughout the day (as a penance) and if the sun set while he was asleep he should sit up the whole night engaged in muttering the Gāyatrī. Āp. Dh. S. II. 5. 12. 13-14 and Manu II. 220-221 contain similar rules and they employ the word 'abhinirmukta'¹⁵²¹ (or abhinimrukta) to denote one who is asleep when the sun sets. The Gobhilasmṛti (in verse) I. 139 says that on getting up one should wash one's eyes. In the Ṛgvidhāna it is ordained that on getting up one should wipe one's eyes with water after reciting Ṛg. X. 73. 11 the latter half of which says 'remove away from us darkness, fulfil our eyes and release us who are as if bound with snares'.

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¹⁵¹⁷ उदयादुदयं भानोर्भूमिसावनवासरः । सूर्यसिद्धान्त (मध्यमाधिकार v. 36.)

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¹⁵¹⁸ त्रियामां रजनीं प्राहुस्त्यक्त्वाद्यन्तचतुष्टयम् । नाडीनां तदुभे संध्ये दिवसद्यन्तसंज्ञिते ॥ ब्रह्मवैवर्तपुराण quoted in the आह्निकतत्त्व p. 327 and सं. प्र. p. 81.

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¹⁵¹⁹ ब्राह्मे मुहूर्ते बुध्येत धर्मार्थौ चानुचिन्तयेत् । कायक्लेशांश्च तन्मूलान्वेदतत्त्वार्थमेव च ॥ मनु IV. 92; ब्राह्मो मुहूर्तो रात्रेः पश्चिमो यामः । ब्राह्मी भारती तत्प्रबोधहेतुत्वात् । मुहूर्त्तशब्दोऽत्र कालमात्रवचनः । कुल्लूक. The first half also occurs in अनुशासनपर्व 104. 16, ब्रह्मपुराण 113. 17, मार्कण्डेयपुराण 34. 17. The कूर्मपुराण as quoted in परा. मा. I. 1. p. 220-221 has almost the same verse as मनु. Compare 'गहनमपररात्रप्राप्तबुद्धिप्रसादाः कवय इव महीपाश्चिन्तयन्त्यर्थजातम् ' , शिशुपालवध 11. 6.

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¹⁵²⁰ सूर्योदयात्प्रागर्थप्रहरे द्वौ मुहूत्तौ तत्राद्यो ब्राह्मो द्वितीयो रौद्रः । परा. मा. I. part 1 p. 220. रात्रेश्च पश्चिमे यामे मुहूर्तो यस्तृतीयकः। स ब्राह्म इति विख्यातो विहितः संप्रबोधने ॥ सुमन्तु q. in आह्निकतत्त्व p. 326; रात्रेस्तु पश्चिमो यामो मुहूर्तो ब्राह्म उच्यते। इति पितामहस्मरणात् । स्मृतिच. I. p. 88.

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¹⁵²¹ सूर्याभ्युदितो ब्रह्मचारी तिष्ठेदहरभुञ्जानोऽभ्यस्तमितश्च रात्रिं जपन् सावित्रीम् । गौ. 23. 21; 'स्वपन्नभिनिर्मुक्तो नाश्नान् वाग्यतो रात्रिमासीत श्वोभूत उदकमुपस्पृश्य वाचं विसृजेत् । आप. ध. सू. II. 5. 12. 13; वयः सुपर्णा इत्येतां जपन्व वै विन्दते श्रियम् । इत्युपक्रम्य अक्षिणी प्रातरुत्थाय निमृजीतैतया सह । चक्षुष्मान्भवति श्रीमान्नालक्ष्मीः प्रतिबाधते । इति ऋग्विधाने उक्तम् । आह्निकप्रकाश p. 19; वयः सुपर्णा is Ṛg. X. 73. 11. This verse is explained in निरुक्त IV. 3.

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The Sm. C. (I. p. 88) quotes the Kūrmapurāṇa to the effect that on getting up from sleep some time before sunrise one should contemplate on God. The Āhnika-prakāśa (p. 16) quotes five verses from the Vāmanapurāṇa (14. 23-27) which are to be recited on getting up as a morning hymn, one of which is quoted below.¹⁵²² These verses are repeated even now by some old people. Some works say that he who repeats the four verses called Bhāratasāvitrī in the morning obtains the reward of hearing the whole Mahābhārata and attains the highest Brahma.¹⁵²³ The Āhnikatattva (p. 327) quotes a verse to be repeated on getting up from bed in which the serpent Karkoṭaka, Damayantī, kings Nala and Ṛtuparṇa are remembered for removing the effects of Kali,¹⁵²⁴ and the Smṛtimuktāphala quotes a verse about Nala, Yudhiṣṭhira, Sītā and Kṛṣṇa as *puṇyaśloka* (singing of whose glory is holy).¹⁵²⁵ The Ācāraratna (p. 10 a) states that one should repeat the names of certain famous and long-lived (cirajīvins) personages viz. Aśvatthāman, Bali, Vyāsa, Hanūmān, Bibhīṣaṇa, Kṛpa, Paraśurāma and Mārkaṇḍeya and also the names of five holy women, Ahalyā, Draupadī, Sītā, Tārā and Mandodarī. Even now old men brought up in the orthodox ways repeat these names on getting up.

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¹⁵²² ब्रह्मा मुरारिस्त्रिपुरान्तकारी भानुः शशी भूमिसुतो बुधश्च । गुरुश्च शुक्रः शनिशाहूकेतवः कुर्वन्तु सर्वे मम सुप्रभातम् ॥. This is वामनपुराण 14. 23. These five are quoted in आह्निकप्रकाश p. 16, आचारमयूख p. 6, स्मृतिमु. (आह्निक) p. 210 (where they are ascribed to दक्ष ).

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¹⁵²³ Vide नित्याचारपद्धति pp. 15-16, आह्निकप्रकाश p. 21. These verses viz. महाभारत, स्वर्गारोहणिक पर्व 5. 60-63, are called भारतसावित्री (in verse 64). Their first pādas are मातापितृसहस्राणि, हर्षस्थानसहस्राणि, ऊर्ध्वबाहुर्विरौम्येष, न जातु कामान्न भयान्न लोभाद्.

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¹⁵²⁴ कर्कोटकस्य नागस्य दमयन्त्या नलस्य च। ऋतुपर्णस्य राजर्षेः कीर्तनं कलिनाशनम् ॥ महाभारत, वनपर्व 79. 10, quoted in आह्निकतत्त्व p. 327 and स्मृतिमु. (आह्निक) p. 211.

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¹⁵²⁵ पुण्यश्लोको नलो राजा पुण्यश्लोको युधिष्ठिरः। पुण्यश्लोका च वैदेही पुण्यश्लोको जनार्दनः॥ quoted in स्मृतिमु. (आह्निक p. 210), आचारमयूख p. 6.

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In some works it is said that if on getting up a man sees a brāhmaṇa learned in the Veda, a lady whose husband is living, a cow, an altar where fire is kindled, he becomes free from adversities and that if a man sees on getting up in the morning a very sinful man, a widow, an untouchable, one naked, one whose nose is cut off, that is an indication of *kali* (misfortune or strife).¹⁵²⁶ Parāśara XII. 47 says that one who has built the fire altar (for Vedic sacrifices), a dark-brown cow, one who is engaged in a *sattra* (or performed it), the king, an ascetic, the ocean—these purify a man the moment they are seen, so one should see them always.

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¹⁵²⁶ These verses are from गोभिलस्मृति II. 163 and 165 (called कर्मप्रदीप also) quoted in आह्निकतत्त्व p. 327, आह्निकप्र. p. 22, स्मृतिमु. (आह्निक) p. 211. I read पापिष्ठं दुर्भगामन्त्यं (and not मर्त्यं or मर्त्य as these do).

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Then the next act is to answer the calls of nature. Very detailed rules are laid down about these even in the most ancient sūtras and smṛtis. Many of the rules are simply hygienic, but as religion, rules of law, of morality, of health and hygiene are mixed up in the ancient works, they are given in works on dharma. Even in the Atharvaveda (XIII. 1. 56) it¹⁵²⁷ is said 'I cut off thy root who kick a cow with the foot or who urinate opposite the sun (facing the sun); thou shall not further cast a shadow.' Urinating while standing seems to have been condemned in the time of the Atharvaveda; *vide* VII. 102 (107). 1 'I shall urinate standing erect; let not the lords harm me.' Gaut. IX. 13, 15, 37-43, Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 30. 15-30 and I. 11. 31. 1-3, Vas. Dh. S. VI. 10-19 and XII. 11-13, Manu IV. 45-52, 56, 151, Yāj. I. 16-17, 134, 154, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 60. 1-26, Śaṅkha,¹⁵²⁸ Vāyupurāṇa 78. 59-64 and 79. 25-31, Vāmanapurāṇa 14. 30-32 may be summarised as follows: one should not void urine or ordure on the road, on ashes, on cow-dung, in ploughed or sown fields, under the shade of trees, in rivers or water, on grassy or beautiful spots, on bricks made ready for erecting altars, on mountain-tops, near dilapidated shrines or cowpens, on ant-hills, in cemeteries or in holes, on threshing floors, on sandy shores. Nor should one answer calls of nature looking at or facing fire, the sun, the moon, a brāhmaṇa, water, the image of some god, cow, wind.

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Nor should one do these acts on the bare ground, but on ground covered with dry twigs or leaves or grass or loose earth. One should cover one's head and should face the north by day or when there is twilight and face the south at night, but when there is a danger one may face any direction. One should not urinate while standing or walking (Manu. IV. 47) nor should one speak while doing so.¹⁵²⁹ One should answer calls of nature away from a human habitation towards the south or south-west. Manu V. 126 and Yāj. I. 17 prescribe that, after answering calls of nature, one should perform cleansing the parts with water held in a pot and lumps of earth to such an extent that no smell or filth will stick. According to Manu V. 136 and 137 and Viṣṇu Dh. S. 60. 25-26 one lump of earth is to be applied to the penis, three to the arms, ten to the left hand and seven to both hands, three to both feet together. This is the extent of *śauca* required for householders, and for brahmacārin, forest hermit and saṁnyāsin, twice, thrice and four times as much is required. The Mit. on Yāj. I. 17 remarks that for all āśramas the cleansing required is only as much as will remove foul smell and filth and the several numbers of lumps of earth prescribed in different smṛtis are only precribed for unseen (or spiritual) results. Gaut. I. 45-46, Vas. III. 48 and Manu V.

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134 say that cleansing of the body is to be so effected first with water and then with earth that foul smell and filth will be totally removed. Devala (quoted in the Gṛ. R. p. 147) says that respectable people do not emphasize the number of times mentioned in the smṛtis, but they say that cleansing should be carried on till one feels that it is all right.¹⁵³⁰ The Smṛtyarthasāra¹⁵³¹ (p. 19) following Dakṣa V. 12 says that at night only half of the *śauca* prescribed for the day is required, only one-fourth of it is prescribed for the ailing and only one-eighth when a man is on a journey and that no special number of lumps of earth are prescribed for women, śūdras, boys whose upanayana has not been performed. In cleansing one is not to employ stones, clods of earth, and green twigs cut off for the purpose from herbs and trees (Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 30. 30, Gaut. IX. 15) nor is one to use earth from inside a river or water reservoir or from a temple, from an ant-hill or from the hiding places of rats or from dung-hills or what is left after being used for a prior cleansing (Vas. Dh. S. VI. 17) nor what is taken from a road or cemetery, nor should one use earth that has worms, coals, or bones or gravel in it. Dakṣa V. 7 prescribes that for the first time as much earth as will fill half of the outstretched hand and for the second time half of that is to be taken and so on.¹⁵³² The lump of earth should not be bigger than a myrobalan fruit (Kūrmapurāṇa in Sm. C. I. p. 182).

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One is not to answer calls of nature with the shoes on (Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 30. 18) and one's *yajñopavīta* should be suspended from the right ear or he should throw it on his back in the *nivīta* form.¹⁵³³ According to Yāj. I. 16 the *yajñopavīta* should be suspended from the right ear only. Vanaparva 59. 2 describes that *kali* (the principle of evil and strife) entered Nala when the latter did not wash his feet after urinating.

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¹⁵²⁷ यश्च गां पदा स्फुरति प्रत्यङ् सूर्ये च मेहति। तस्य वृश्चामि ते मूलं न छायां करवोऽपरम्॥ अथर्व XIII. 1. 56; मेक्ष्याम्यूर्ध्वस्तिष्ठन्मा मा हिंसिषुरीश्वराः॥ अथर्व VII. 102 (107). 1.

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¹⁵²⁸ न गोमयकृष्टेशशाइ्रवलोचिति-श्मशान-वल्मीक-वर्त्मखलगोष्ठबिलपर्वतपुलिनेषु मेहेत भूताधारत्वात्। शङ्ख quoted in मिता० on या. I. 134.

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¹⁵²⁹ उच्चारे मैथुने चैव प्रस्त्रावे दन्तधावने। स्नाने भोजनकाले च षट्सु मौनं समाचरेत्॥ हारीत quoted in आह्निकप्रकाश p. 26. This is लघुहारीत verse 40; अत्रि 323 is पुरीषे मैथुने होमे प्रस्त्रावे दन्तधावने। स्नानभोजनजप्येषु सदा मौनं समाचरेत्॥

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¹⁵³⁰ यावत्साध्विति मन्येत तावच्छौचं विधीयते । प्रमाणं शौचसंख्यायां न शिष्टैरुपदिश्यते ॥ देवल in गृह. र. p. 147 and स्मृतिच० I. p. 93.

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¹⁵³¹ Vide विश्वरूप on या. I. 17 वल्मीकाखूत्करोत्था वा जलात् पथि कृता च या । कृतशौचावशिष्टा च षड्भिः शौचं न विद्यते ॥; also मार्कण्डेयपुराण 34. 65-66, स्मृत्यर्थसार p. 19.

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¹⁵³² अर्धप्रसृतिमात्रा तु प्रथमा मृत्तिका स्मृता । द्वितीया च तृतीया च तदर्धार्धा प्रकीर्तिता ॥ दक्ष V. 7. The first half is quoted even by विश्वरूप on या. I. 17.

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¹⁵³³ अङ्गिरा अपि । कृत्वा यज्ञोपवीतं तु पृष्ठतः कण्ठलम्बितम् । विण्मूत्रं तु गृही कुर्याद् यद्वा कर्णे समाहितः । कर्णे निधानमेकवस्त्रविषयम् । तथा च सांख्यायनगृह्यम् । यद्येकवस्त्रो यज्ञोपवीतं कर्णे कृत्वा मूत्रपुरीषोत्सर्गं कुर्यात् इति । स्मृतिच. I. p. 89. Vide शाङ्खायनगृह्य IV. 12. 22 (S. B. E. vol 29 p. 126).

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This cleansing of the body in the morning is only a part of general *śauca*. Śauca is according to Gaut. VIII. 24 one of the *ātmaguṇas*. Even the Ṛg. (in VII. 56. 12 and other verses) appears to emphasize cleanliness (*śucitva*).¹⁵³⁴ According to Hārīta 'śauca is the first path to *dharma*, it is the resting place of *brahma* (Veda), the abode of *śrī* (prosperity), the means of clearing (or soothing) the mind, the favourite of gods, the means of realizing the *Ātman* and the awakener of intelligence.'¹⁵³⁵ According to Baud. Dh. S. III. 1. 26, Hārīta, Dakṣa V. 3 and Vyāghrapāda (quoted in Sm. C. I. p. 93) *śauca* is of two kinds,¹⁵³⁶ *bāhya* (outward) and *āntara* or *ābhyantara* (inward), the first being effected by water and loose earth and the latter is the purity of one's sentiments. Hārīta divides the first into three, that of *kula* (being free from impurity due to birth or death in the family), of *artha* (i. e. of the vessels and things to be used in all matters) and of *śarīra* (cf one's body); Hārīta divides *ābhyantara* into five, *mānasa* (mental), *cākṣuṣa* (of the eye i. e. not looking at things that should not be looked at), *ghrāṇya* (of the nose), *vācya* (of speech), *svādya* (of the tongue). According to a verse quoted by Haradatta on Gaut. VIII. 24 *śauca* is of four kinds, viz. of *dravya* (the vessels and things employed by one), of the mind, of speech and of the body. Vṛddha-Gautama (Jīvānanda p. 632) speaks of five kinds of *śauca* viz. of the mind, of actions, of *kula* (family), of the body and of speech. According to Manu V. 135, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 22. 81, Atri v. 31 and others there are twelve *malas* (filthy exudations or impurities) of the human body, viz. fat, semen, blood, marrow, urine, fæces, mucus of the nose, ear-wax, phlegm, tears, rheum of eyes, sweat; and the first six of these are removed by water and earth and the latter six by water ( Atri v. 32 ).

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¹⁵³⁴ शुची वो हव्या मरुतः शुचीनां शुचिं हिनोम्यध्वरं शुचिभ्यः । ऋतेन सत्यममृत-साप आयञ्छुचिजन्मानः शुचयः पावकाः ॥ ऋ. VII. 56. 12.

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¹⁵³⁵ तत्र हारीतः । शौचं नाम धर्मादिपथो ब्रह्मायतनं श्रियोधिवासो मनसः प्रसादनं देवानां प्रियं शरीरे क्षेत्रदर्शनं बुद्धिप्रबोधनम् । गृह. र. p. 522.

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¹⁵³⁶ शौचं च द्विविधं प्रोक्तं बाह्यमाभ्यन्तरं तथा । मृज्जलाभ्यां स्मृतं बाह्यं भावशुद्धिस्तथान्तरम् ॥ दक्ष V. 3 and व्याघ्रपाद.

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After preforming śauca one has to rinse the mouth with twelve mouthfuls (gaṇḍūṣa) of water (vide Smṛtimuktāphala, āhnika p. 220). When one finishes the purification of the body by washing the hands and feet and by rinsing the mouth one has to engage in *ācamana*.¹⁵³⁷ A good deal has been said about ācamana above (pp. 315-316) under upanayana. Ācamana (sipping water) is to be done after tying the top-knot and tucking up the garment from behind; the water is to be poured in the hollowed palm of the hand in such a quantity that a grain of māṣa (bean) will be plunged in it and the three fingers except the thumb and the small one are to be joined together and the water is to be drunk from that part of the hand which is called *brāhma tīrtha* described above (n. 750). The word *tīrtha* means that part of the right hand by which water is taken in or poured in religious rites and the parts are given the names of deities for lauding them, as Viśvarūpa says.¹⁵³⁸ In most smṛtis their number is four, viz. prājāpatya or kāya, pitrya, brāhma, and daiva (for example in Manu II. 59, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 62. 1-4, Yāj. I. 19, Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa 34. 103-109, Dakṣa II. 18). Some works like the Śāṭyāyanakalpa and Vṛddha-Vasiṣṭha quoted by Viśvarūpa on Yāj. I. 19 name five tīrthas viz. daiva (when a brāhmaṇa faces the east, the front part of his hand), pitrya (the right portion of the right hand), brāhma (the portion of the hand opposite the fingers), prājāpatya (the portion of the hand near the small finger) and pārameṣṭhya (the centre of the right palm). The Pār. gṛ. pariśiṣṭa names the above five, except that it substitutes the name āgneya for pārameṣṭhya. The Śaṅkha-smṛti (in verse, X. 1-2) distinguishes kāya and prājāpatya and omits the name of brāhma altogether which is called prājāpatya by it. Vaik. I. 5 has six, the usual four, the fifth being āgneya (centre of the palm) and the sixth being ārṣa (the roots and tips of all fingers together). According to some, *daiva tīrtha* means the tips of the fingers and the centre of the palm is either saumya or āgneya. According to Hārīta the daiva¹⁵³⁹ tīrtha is to be used in mārjana, worship of gods, offering of *bali* and in *bhojana*; the kāya tīrtha is to be employed in lāja-homa (homa of fried grain) and daily homa, the pitrya in all rites for dead ancestors. Touching the kamaṇḍalu (water jar), eating curds and fresh products of the fields (navānna) are to be done with the saumya tīrtha (Smṛtyarthasāra p. 20). When there is difficulty of getting water and an occasion for purification by ācamana arises, one should touch one's right¹⁵⁴⁰ ear. Very elaborate rules are laid down in the digests on the subject of ācamana (e. g. Sm. C. I. pp. 95-104), Smṛtimuktāphala, Āhnika-prakāśa pp. 221-240, Āhnika-tattva pp. 333-344. Gṛ. R. pp. 150-172 &c., which have to be all passed over for want of space. One matter to be noticed is that according to the Āpastamba-smṛti (in verse) the procedure of ācamana is of four kinds, viz. paurāṇika (in which each sipping of water is accompanied by the names, Keśava, Nārāyaṇa, Mādhava &c.); smārta (as laid down in the smṛtis like Manu II. 60 ff), āgama (i. e. taught in the sacred books of Śaiva and Vaiṣṇava sectarians) and śrauta (laid down in the Śrautasūtras for Vedic sacrifices¹⁵⁴¹). The first of these four is the method usually followed now by most brāhmaṇas.

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¹⁵³⁷ तत्र हस्तौ पादौ प्रक्षाल्य यज्ञोपवीती शुद्धभूमौ पादौ प्रतिष्ठाप्य बद्धकच्छशिखः पुण्डरीकाक्षमिष्टदेवतां स्मृत्वा प्रकृतिस्थं फेनबुद्बुदरहितं संहताङ्गुलिपाणिनाऽम्बु गृहीत्वाऽङ्गुष्ठकनिष्ठिके मुक्त्वा शेषं वीक्षितं ब्रह्मतीर्थेन त्रिचतुर्वारं समाहितः पिबेत् । स्मृत्यर्थसार p. 20.

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¹⁵³⁸ तीर्थमिति च दक्षिणहस्तेऽवतारप्रदेशनामधेयम् । लोकेप्युदकाद्यवतारे तीर्थशब्दः प्रसिद्धः। तानि च विशेषकार्योपयिकत्वात् स्तुत्यर्थे देवताभिराख्यायन्ते । विश्वरूप on या. I. 19.

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¹⁵³⁹ तत्र हारीतः। मार्जनार्चनबलिकर्मभोजनानि दैवेन तीर्थेन कुर्यात्। इति। दैवं तीर्थमङ्गुल्यग्रम्। स्मृतिच. I. p. 226.

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¹⁵⁴⁰ आपत्सु नैमित्तिककर्माङ्गाचमनस्थाने श्रवणस्पर्शनं स्यान्मनःशुद्ध्यर्थम् । स्मृत्यर्थसार p. 21.

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¹⁵⁴¹ आपस्तम्बस्मृतौ । आदौ पौराणिकं प्रोक्तं स्मार्तमागममेव च। श्रौतं चतुर्विधं प्राहुराचामं ब्रह्मवादिनः ॥ अच्युताद्यैः समाचामेत्केशवाद्यैस्तु नामभिः । अङ्गानां स्पर्शनं कुर्यादेतत्पौराणिकं मतम् ॥ स्मृतिमु. (आह्निक) p. 221.

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*Danta-dhāvana* (brushing the teeth).

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Danta-dhāvana comes after śauca and ācamana and before snāna (bath). Vide Yāj. I. 98 and Dakṣa II. 6. The practice of daily danta-dhāvana has existed in India from the most ancient times. The Tai. S.¹⁵⁴² (II. 5. 1. 7) when enumerating the actions which a *rajasvalā* (a woman in her monthly period) was to avoid mentions *dantadhāvana* among them and remarks that if she indulges in it during that period, she gives birth to a son whose teeth are naturally black. Dantadhāvana is an independent act by itself performed for rendering the body (here the mouth) clean and it is not an aṅga (a subordinate constituent part) of bath or morning prayer.¹⁵⁴³ Āp. Dh. S. I. 2. 8. 5 forbids¹⁵⁴⁴ one who has returned from his teacher's home after finishing his studies to engage in the sight of his teacher in such acts of pleasure as cleansing the teeth, shampooing the body and combing the hair and also forbids the study of the Veda while such actions are going on (*ibid.* I. 3. 11. 10-12).¹⁵⁴⁵ The brahmacārin was not to engage in the leisurely actions of brushing the teeth (but was to rinse his mouth) according to Gaut. II. 19 and Vas. Dh. S. VII. 15.

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¹⁵⁴² या दतो धावते तस्यै श्यावदन्। तै. सं. II. 5. 1. 7.

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¹⁵⁴³ अत्र संध्यायां स्नाने च दन्तधावनस्य नाङ्गत्वम्। मुखे पर्युषिते नित्यं भवत्यप्रयतो नरः। तस्मात्सर्वप्रयत्नेन भक्षयेद्दन्तधावनम्॥ इति वृद्धशातातपवचनेन स्वतन्त्रस्यैव शुद्धिहेतुतयाभिधानात्। आह्निकप्रकाश p. 121; the verse मुखे पर्युषिते is लघुशातातप 74.

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¹⁵⁴⁴ स्वैरिकर्मसु च यथा दन्तप्रक्षालनोत्साधनावलिखनानीति। आप. ध. I. 2. 8. 4-5; vide आप. ध. सू. I. 3. 11. 10-11 for the same words followed by तावन्तं कालं नाधीयीताध्यापयेद्वा.

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¹⁵⁴⁵ खट्वाशयनदन्तधावनप्रक्षालनाञ्जनाभ्यञ्जनोपानच्छत्रवर्जी। वसिष्ठ VII. 15.

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In dantadhāvana one has to take the twig (with its bark) of certain trees, crush the end of the twig with his teeth so as to make a brush of it and then to cleanse his teeth with the brush-like end. According to Gobhilasmṛti¹⁵⁴⁶ (which is also called Chandoga-pariśiṣṭa in some works) if a man only rinses his mouth with river water or at home, he has not to repeat a mantra, but if he uses a twig he has to repeat a mantra 'Oh tree, bestow on me long life, strength, fame, brilliance, offspring, cattle, wealth, brahma (Veda), memory and intelligence.' In the Pār. gṛ. II. 6 and Āp. gṛ. 12. 6 brushing of the teeth with an *udumbara* twig is prescribed in Samāvartana with a mantra 'may you be ready for food; here comes the king Soma; may he clean my mouth with glory and good luck.'¹⁵⁴⁷ Therefore the same mantra is to be employed every day after samāvartana. In some of the digests (like the Āhnikaprakāśa pp. 121–122) it is stated that that mantra may be employed by the students of the Śukla Yajurveda, while those who study the Gobhila gṛhya may use the mantra ‘āyurbalam &c’.

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¹⁵⁴⁶ दन्तान् प्रक्षाल्य नद्यादौ गृहे चेत्तदमन्त्रवत्। नारद्याद्युक्तवार्क्षं यदष्टाङ्गुलमपाटितम्। सत्वचं दन्तकाष्ठं स्यात्तदग्रेण प्रधावयेत्॥ ...... परिजप्य च मन्त्रेण भक्षयेद्दन्तधावनम्॥ आयुर्बलं यशो वर्चः प्रजां पशून् वसूनि च। ब्रह्म प्रज्ञां च मेधां च त्वं नो देहि वनस्पते॥ गोभिलस्मृति I. 137-140. This मन्त्र is quoted by the मिता० on याज्ञ. I. 98 and by almost all digests on धर्मशास्त्र.

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¹⁵⁴⁷ औदुम्बरेण दन्तान्धावयेत्। अन्नाद्याय व्यूहध्वं सोमो राजायमागमत्। स मे मुखं प्रमाक्ष्यते यशसा च भगेन च। इति। ...... दन्तप्रक्षालनादीनि नित्यम्। पारस्कर II. 6. The मन्त्र 'अन्नाद्याय' occurs in आप. म. पा. II. 7. 19 with variations. सोम is the king of plants and hence the udumbara twig is called 'this king Soma'.

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Very detailed rules are laid down about the length of the twig, about the trees the twigs of which are allowed or forbidden, about the days or occasions or times on which there is to be no dantadhāvana. A few of these details are given below. Trees having thorns on their trunk or from which a milky fluid oozes out when a twig is broken off are allowed and so are vaṭa, asana, arka, khadira, karañja, badara, sarja, nimba, arimeda, apāmārga, mālatī, kakubha, bilva, āmra (mango), punnāga, śirīṣa and further the twig must be astringent, pungent or bitter in taste and not sweet or sour.¹⁵⁴⁸ Vide Bṛhat-Saṁhitā of Varāhamihira chap. 85, Laghu-Hārīta (Jīvānanda part I. p. 183), Laghu-Vyāsa I. 17–18, Nṛsiṁhapurāṇa 58. 47. Before the advent of the modern dentifrices people in India followed these directions and even now many even in the cities still follow them and brush their teeth with twigs of various trees. Among the trees which are not to be used for dantadhāvana are palāśa,¹⁵⁴⁹ śleṣmātaka, ariṣṭa, vibhītaka, dhava, bandhūka, nirguḍī, śigru, tilva, tinduka, inguda, guggulu, śamī, pīlu, pippala, kovidāra &c. (Viṣṇu Dh. S. 61. 1–5). The twig may be undried or dried, but one dried on the tree itself is not to be taken (Viṣṇu Dh. S. 61. 8, Nṛsiṁhapurāṇa 58. 46). One must brush the teeth facing north or east, but not west or south (Viṣṇu Dh. S. 61. 12–13). Viṣṇu Dh. S. (61. 16–17) prescribes that the twig should be as big as the end of one's small finger and twelve *aṅgulas* in length and it should be washed before its use and after using it it should not be cast off in an impure place. There are various opinions about the length of the twig employed. The Nṛsiṁhapurāṇa (58. 49. 50) says that it may be of eight aṅgulas in length or a span in length (prādeśa); Garga (quoted in Sm. C. I. p. 105) says that the twig should be 10, 9, 8, 7 or 4 angulas in length respectively for the four varṇas and women. One was not to cleanse one's teeth with pieces of brick or with clods of earth or with stones or with the bare fingers (except the thumb and the finger next to the small finger).¹⁵⁵⁰

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¹⁵⁴⁸ वटासनार्कखदिरकरञ्जषदरसर्जनिम्बारिमेदापामार्गमालतीककुभबिल्वानामन्यतमम् । कषायं तिक्तं कटुकं च । विष्णुधर्मसूत्र 61. 14–15; आम्रपालाशबिल्वानामपामार्गशिरीषयोः । खादिरस्य करञ्जस्य कदम्बस्य तथैव च ॥ अर्कस्य करवीरस्य कुटजस्य विशेषतः ॥ वाग्यतः प्रातरुत्थाय भक्षयेद्दन्तधावनम् ॥ माण्डूकीशिक्षा of अथर्ववेद (ed. by Bhagavad-datta, Lahore) IV. 1-2; सर्वे कण्टकिनः पुण्याः क्षीरिणश्च यशस्विनः । नारद; आम्रपुन्नाग-बिल्वानामपामार्गशिरीषयोः । भक्षयेत् प्रातरुत्थाय वाग्यतो दन्तधावनम् । अङ्गिरस्. All these are quoted in the स्मृतिच० I. pp. 105–106 and other digests. ‘सर्वे कण्टकिनः … यशस्विनः’ is नृसिंहपुराण 58. 49.

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¹⁵⁴⁹ पालाशमासनं पादुके दन्तधावनमिति च वर्जयेत् । गौतम IX. 44, आप. ध. सू. I. 11. 32. 9 (reads दन्तप्रक्षालनं), वसिष्ठ XII. 34., बौ. ध. सू. II. 3. 30.

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¹⁵⁵⁰ यदाह वृद्धयाज्ञवल्क्यः । इष्टकालोष्टपाषाणैरितराङ्गुलिभिस्तथा । मुक्त्वा चानामिकाङ्गुष्ठौ न कुर्याद्दन्तधावनम् ॥ स्मृतिच. I. p. 106; vide लघुशातातप v. 73.

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According to Laghu-Hārīta (Jīvānanda I. p. 183) and Nṛsiṁhapurāṇa 58. 50-52 there is to be no brushing of the teeth with a twig on the 1st *tithi*, the parva tithis (i. e. new moon, full moon, 8th day, 14th day and the day on which the Sun enters a new zodiacal sign, according to Viṣṇu-purāṇa III. 11. 118), on the 6th tithi and 9th tithi and on those days when twigs are not available one may rinse one's mouth with twelve mouthfuls of water¹⁵⁵¹. Paiṭhīnasi (quoted in the Sm. C. I. p. 106) says 'one may brush one's teeth with grass, leaves and water and with the fingers except the 4th finger.' One may also cleanse with mouthfuls of water when one has no teeth (Āhnikaprakāśa, p. 127). One may also rub one's tongue with these or with a twig on the days on which it is allowed. There is to be no dantadhāvana on śrāddha day (for the performer), on the day of a sacrifice, when one is observing *niyama*, when the husband has gone to another country, when there is indigestion, on marriage day, on a fast or a vrata (Smṛtyarthasāra p. 25). Viṣṇu¹⁵⁵² Dh. S. 61. 16 prescribes dantadhāvana not only in the morning but also after taking one's meal. This, as stated by Devala, is intended for removing particles of food sticking to the teeth or the gums.

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¹⁵⁵¹ प्रतिपद्दर्शषष्ठीषु नवम्यां चैव सत्तमाः । दन्तानां काष्ठसंयोगाद्दहत्या सप्तमं कुलम् ॥ अभावे दन्तकाष्ठानां प्रतिषिद्धदिनेषु च । अपां द्वादशगण्डूषैर्मुखशुद्धिं समाचरेत् । लघुहारीत, नृसिंहपुराण 58. 50-52; vide लघ्वाश्वलायन I. 14-15, स्मृत्यर्थसार p. 25; अनुशासन 127. 4 condemns the use of a twig on the new moon day.

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¹⁵⁵² प्रातर्भुक्त्वा च यतवाग्भक्षयेद्दन्तधावनम् ॥ विष्णुधर्मसूत्र 61. 16; एतेन प्रातःकाले भोजनोत्तरं दन्तलग्ननिर्हरणार्थं भोजने दन्तलग्नानि निर्हृत्याचमनं चरेदिति देवलस्वरसासिद्धमपि वृत्तधावनं कार्यम् । आह्निकप्र. p. 125. The अष्टाङ्गसंग्रह I. 3 also recommends this 'प्रातर्भुक्त्वा च यतवाग्भक्षयेद्दन्तधावनम् ॥. Vide Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 52 (for 1932) p. 163 ff for references to the twigs used for brushing teeth from ancient Buddhist works and Fa Hien's 'Record of Buddhist kingdoms' (Legge p. 54) for the dantakāṣṭha of Buddha.

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*Snāna.*—After dantadhāvana comes snāna. As ācamana, snāna (bath), japa (muttering of holy Vedic texts), homa and other rites are to be performed after holding kuśa grass in the right hand some remarks must be offered on kuśas. The Kūrmapurāṇa says 'whatever action is done without darbha or without yajñopavīta, it becomes useless and brings no reward here or in the next world' (quoted in Kṛtyaratnākara p. 47). Śātātapa ¹⁵⁵³ says 'in japa, homa, dāna, svādhyāya (study of the Veda) or in pitṛtarpaṇa one should have in his hand gold, silver and kuśas'. One should have at the time of ācamana &c. a pavitra (a ring-like loop) of darbhas in his right hand or in both his hands on the finger next to the small one or have kuśa in his right hand. There were several views about wearing a *pavitra* or darbhas, as stated in note 1553. The darbha grass is to be collected on the *darśa* day (new moon) in the month of Śrāvaṇa and the darbhas so collected are never stale and may be used again and again ¹⁵⁵⁴. The *pavitra* of the four varṇas should be made with 4 darbhas or with 3, 2, or 1 respectively or it should be made with two darbhas for all (Smṛtyarthasāra pp. 36-37). Those darbha blades from which no further blades shoot forth are called simply darbhas, blades from which fresh ones sprout forth are called kuśas, blades with their roots are called kutapas and those the tips of which are cut off are called *tṛṇa* ¹⁵⁵⁵ (grass). The darbha grass growing in a field of sesame and having seven blades is very auspicious.

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¹⁵⁵³ शातातपः । जपे होमे तथा दाने स्वाध्याये पितृतर्पणे । अशून्यं तु करं कुर्यात्सुवर्णरजतैः कुशैः ॥ स्मृतिच० I. p. 108; vide स्मृत्यर्थसार for a similar verse. अत्र चत्वारः पक्षाः । हस्तद्वये दर्भधारणम् । हस्तद्वये पवित्रधारणं दक्षिणे पवित्रं वामे कुशा दक्षिणेवोभयमिति । आचाररत्न p. 24 b. Vide गोभिलस्मृति I. 28 quoted by अपरार्क pp. 43 and 480.

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¹⁵⁵⁴ मासे नभस्यमावास्या तस्यां दर्भोच्चयो मतः । अयातयामास्ते दर्भा नियोज्याः स्युः पुनः पुनः ॥ हारीत quoted in स्मृतिच. I. p. 107. Vide स्मृत्यर्थसार p. 36, लिखितस्मृति v. 41, मरीचि quoted in कृत्यत्ननाकर p. 67.

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¹⁵⁵⁵ अप्रसूताः स्मृता दर्भाः प्रसूतास्तु कुशाः स्मृताः । समूलाः कुतपाः प्रोक्ताश्छिन्नाग्रास्तृणसंज्ञिताः ॥ वृद्धहारीत VII. 44; this is quoted as कौशिक's in स्मृतिच ० I p. 108.) and as of कात्यायन in स्मृतिमु. (आह्निक p. 231.)

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The darbhas to be used in yajñas should be green in colour, yellowish for use in *pākayajñas*, they should be with roots when used in rites for the pitṛs and variegated when used in vaiśvadeva Those darbhas that were held in the hand at the time of offering piṇḍas to the dead or in śrāddhas or in pitṛtarpaṇa or at the time of urination or voiding-fæces should be thrown away (Smṛtyarthasāra p. 37). If kuśa grass is not available, then kāśa or dūrvā may be employed instead.

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The subject of snāna can be treated from various points of view. Snāna¹⁵⁵⁶ is either *mukhya* (principal) or *gauṇa* (secondary), the first being a bath with water and the second being without water. Each of these is again subdivided into various kinds. According to Dakṣa II. 48 snāna is nitya (obligatory every day), naimittika (to be performed on certain occasions), and kāmya (to be performed only if one desires certain rewards). All the varṇas¹⁵⁵⁷ have to bathe in or with water every day the whole body together with the head also (Baud. Dh. S. II. 4. 4, Manu II. 176 and IV. 82) and *dvijātis* have to do it with Vedic mantras. This is *nitya*. This¹⁵⁵⁸ is required to be done, because a man who has not bathed is not entitled to perform homa, japa and other rites (Śaṅkha VIII. 2, Dakṣa II. 9). The body is dirty and from it ooze various exudations day and night and a bath in the morning cleanses and purifies the body. In this way snāna has seen and unseen (i. e. spiritual) results¹⁵⁵⁹.

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¹⁵⁵⁶ स्नानं तु द्विविधं प्रोक्तं गौणमुख्यप्रभेदतः। तयोस्तु वारुणं मुख्यं तत्पुनः षड्विधं भवेत् ॥ नित्यं नैमित्तिकं काम्यं क्रियाङ्गं मलकर्षणम् । क्रियास्नानं तथा षष्ठं षोढा स्नानं प्रकीर्तितम् ॥ quoted by अपरार्क p. 127, मद. पा. 236, स्मृतिच० I. p. 110, गृह. र. pp. 200–201, परा. मा. I. 1. p. 268. The 2nd verse is शङ्खस्मृति VIII. 1.

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¹⁵⁵⁷ अपोवगाहनं स्नानं विहितं सार्ववर्णिकम् । मन्त्रवत्प्रोक्षणं चापि द्विजातीनां विशिष्यते ॥ बौ. ध. सू. II. 4. 4; स्नानं च सर्ववर्णानां कार्यं शौचपुरःसरम् । समन्त्रकं द्विजानां स्यात्स्त्रीशूद्राणाममन्त्रकम् ॥ स्मृत्यर्थसार p. 26.

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¹⁵⁵⁸ अस्नातस्तु पुमानाह्नो जप्याग्निक्वनादिषु । प्रातःस्नानं तदर्थं च नित्यस्नानं प्रकीर्तितम् ॥ शङ्ख VIII. 2 quoted in अपरार्क p. 127.

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¹⁵⁵⁹ अत्यन्तमलिनः कायो नवच्छिद्रसमन्वितः । स्रवत्येष दिवा रात्रौ प्रातःस्नानं विशोधनम् ॥ प्रातःस्नानं प्रशंसन्ति दृष्टादृष्टकरं हि तत् । सर्वमर्हति शुद्धात्मा प्रातःस्नायी जपादिकम् ॥ दक्ष II. 7 and 9 quoted in अपरार्क p. 125 and स्मृतिच. I. p. 111.

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Some works (Yāj. I. 95, 100, Laghu-Āśvalāyana I. 16, 75, Dakṣa II. 9 and 43 &c.), prescribe two baths a day for brāhmaṇa house-holders, one before day-break and another at noon. There is only one bath a day for brahmacārins, two for forest hermits (Manu VI. 6). According to Manu VI. 22 and Yāj. III. 48 the forest hermit has to bathe thrice (in the morning, at noon and in the evening) and a *yati* has also to bathe thrice¹⁵⁶⁰. Though even now some orthodox brāhmaṇa householders do perform two baths a day, the usual rule for all Hindus (including even the so-called untouchables) is to bathe once a day, which also has been the general rule for centuries (vide Smṛtyarthasāra p. 26 'sarve vāpi sakṛt kuryur). Snāna is usually done now before noon, that in the early morning being done only by a *yati*, one observing a *vrata*, a brahmacārin, sacrificial priests, students of the Veda and those engaged in austerities (Smṛtyarthasāra p. 27). The morning bath is to be taken immediately after brushing the teeth before day-break when one sees the eastern direction lit up by the morning rays of the rising sun (Viṣṇu¹⁵⁶¹ Dh. S. 64. 8). Gobhila-smṛti (II. 24) says that¹⁵⁶² one should not lengthen out the process of taking the morning bath (by repeating too many mantras) as it would come in the way of performing the morning homa at the proper time, which is between the first appearance of light and the sun's reaching about one cubit above the eastern horizon (Gobhila I. 122-123). *Vide* Manu II. 15 also. The mādhyāhna (midday) bath is to be performed in the fourth part of the day-time divided into eight parts (Dakṣa II. 43, Laghu-Vyāsa II. 9) and one has to bring together loose earth, cow-dung, flowers, whole rice grains, kuśas, sesame and sandalwood paste¹⁵⁶³. This midday bath is not to be performed by one who is ill. The third bath (in the case of forest hermits and yatis) is to be performed before sunset, but not after sun-set or at night. No bathing is allowed for any one at night except when there is an eclipse or the sun passes into the zodiacal signs of Cancer and Capricorn (at night), a marriage, a birth or death or when a vrata is undertaken with some object¹⁵⁶⁴. Night means specially the two middle watches (Manu IV. 129, Kullūka thereon and Parāśara XII. 27).

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