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An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c15: 10 Ornaments, Gems, etc.

An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c15

Language
English

Contents

10 Ornaments, Gems, etc.

10.1 Beads

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For a study of the technique of bead-making as also for a rich variety of materials used and types produced there is probably no country other than India which fulfils all the three aspects. Moreover the sources for such a study are numerous, the two principal ones being archaeological and literary. Obviously the former is more precise and tangible whereas the latter suffers from generalizations and imprecise chronology. In spite of these limitations the literary data are generally supplementary and corroborative, though belonging mostly to early and late historical periods.

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From the point of view of time-span evidence of the use of beads in India comes from the Mesolithic [4.5] and runs through all the subsequent periods till the late medieval. Within this vast chronological range the beads of dentalium shell from the Mesolithic/early Neolithic site of LANGHNAJ in Gujarat appears to be the earliest and seems to go back earlier than 2000 B.C. However recently stone beads have been reported from Phase I (*c.* 5000 to 2000 B.C.) of BAGOR in Rajasthan, though it is suspected that they might really belong to a subsequent phase dated between *c.* 2800 and 600 B.C. It will however be seen that the time-span of Phase II is very wide and even if the initial date of this phase, i.e. 2800 B.C., is accepted, the beads from Bagor could not have been very much earlier than those from Langhnaj. The next evidence, in point of cultural periods, belongs to the Neolithic [4.6], of which at least these sites deserve mention. TEKKALAKOTTA in Karnataka has given in a Neolithic context a variety of beads of shell, magnesite, agate, carnelian, terracotta and gold, assigned to Phase I of the cultural period designated as Neolithic-Chalcolithic and ¹⁴C dated to between 1675 and 1445 B.C. BURZAHOM in Kashmir has also produced from the Neolithic habitational remains, similarly dated to between 2375 and 1513 B.C., a piece of stone with two neat perforations which might indicate its use as an amulet or a pendant. The third Neolithic site is CHIRAND in Bihar. While some have doubted if Pd I of Chirand could be designated as Neolithic, it has given beautiful beads of carnelian and agate as also of faience and steatite, the latter two materials obviously having been imported from other regions. The topmost Neolithic level of Chirand has been dated to 1755 ± 155 B.C. which indicates that the initial habitations should be earlier in time.

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It is only from the full-fledged Copper-Bronze [4.7] and Chalcolithic [4.14] ages that the data in respect of beads become abundant and varied. All phases of the Harappa culture [4.9,10] and several regional Chalcolithic cultures [4.14] evidenced in Rajasthan, c. India, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Andhra-Karnataka have proved to be rich in beads though the Harappa is the richest, both in number and variety.

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Around the beginning of the 1st millennium B.C. the second urbanization [4.18] is supposed to have taken place because of the introduction of iron. This revolution is reflected in the rich material assemblage including beads associated with the horizons of this process of urbanization. HASTINĀPURA, KAUŚĀMBĪ, PAITHAN, PĀTALIPUTRA, RAJGHAT, TAXILA and VAIŚĀLĪ belonging to this period have yielded a rich and varied collection of beads of different periods. Some of these, for instance those from Taxila, KAUŚĀMBĪ, UJJAIN, etc., seem to have developed as centres of bead-manufacture in the early centuries prior to and after the beginning of the Christian era.

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The third stage of importance in the history of Indian beads belongs to the initial two centuries of the Christian era, or in dynastic terms the period of the Sātavāhanas who ruled over large parts of the Deccan and parts of c. and w. India. It is during this period that one comes across the introduction of new materials like the Mediterranean fine-grained corals and Roman glass [8.2].

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After the fall of the Sātavāhana dynasty, even though mighty dynasties like those of the Guptas, Pratīharas, Chalukyas, Rāṣṭrakūṭas, Colas and Palas ruled over different parts of India, not much material evidence on the every-day life of the people is available. And hence the fourth and the final stage in the study of Indian beads is associated with the establishment of Mughal empire which encompassed vast territories of India. The noteworthy feature of this period, which may be designated as 'medieval', is the fabrication of glass beads which flourished as a cottage industry at several centres in Maharashtra, Vidarbha, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh.

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It would be clear from the foregoing account that the data for the study of Indian beads stretch over a vast span of time, i.e., from the 3rd millennium B.C. to about the 18th century A.D. However the data suffer from a few handicaps. For instance, the periodization of some of the excavated sites is not precise, and sometimes one Pd is assigned a span of about 500 years which is not helpful for any precise study. Secondly, in several cases the material is found to have been not properly identified. This handicaps the study of the history of the use of a particular material for bead-making. Moreover a comprehensive study of literary sources concerning the art and technique of bead-making as also the study of the idea implied behind the use of a particular material or a shape has not yet been made, with the result that coordination, supplementation and corroboration between the excavated data and literary data have not been attempted. Such a co-ordination is useful, for want of which serious lacunae have remained. For instance, the *Atharvaveda* refers to several types of beads and amulets and the Saṁhitā and Sūtra literatures refers to *maṇi-kāra* and different techniques of bead-making. So also the Buddhist and Jaina literatures which refer to various semiprecious stones and different types of necklaces of beads and pendants. The *Ratna-śāstra* literature of the medieval period is also full of information regarding precious and semiprecious stones.

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For the ancient bead-making centres there is reasonably good archaeological and literary evidence. The archaeological evidence goes back to the 3rd millennium B.C. and indicates that sites like Chanhu-daro, Lothal and other sites of the Harappa civilization were centres of bead manufacture. In the post-Harappa period, NAVDATOLI, KAYATHA and PRABHAS PATAN were the places where bead-making seems to have been a prosperous art. In the early historical period a number of centres like UJJAIN, KAUŚĀMBĪ, AHICCHATRĀ, TAMLUK, PAITHAN, BHOKARDAN, TER, KOLHAPUR, MASKI, KOPIA and KONDAPUR prospered and the artistic excellence also seems to have been noteworthy. Several medieval sites in the Deccan and Ganga valley seem to have come up, though the nature of their glass-bead industry remained essentially of a small-scale cottage industry.

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The data in support of the above observations come in different forms at different sites. For instance Chanhudaro representing Harappa culture has given evidence of chert drills about 2·5 to 3 cm in length capable of drilling carnelian and agate beads. Such long drills were used in perforating long cylinders of agate and carnelian which were a typical shape of the Indus bead industry. LOTHAL in Gujarat has brought to light a bead-maker's workshop with a circular furnace, possibly for converting agate into carnelian, and small tongs of copper used in the process of bead-making. Another noteworthy type associated with the Indus sites is that of etched beads of three categories: those having a white pattern on red background; those having black patterns on whitened surface; and those which have black pattern etched directly on the bead. The first could be achieved with the help of liquid of potash, white lead and the juice of a bush-plant called *kiral* (*Copparis aphylla*); the second was achieved by whitening the surface with alkali and drawing the required design from black prepared from metals like copper and manganese; while the third involved the drawing of the pattern in black etched directly on the original surface of the bead. Like etched beads, glazed beads of faïence and steatite also seem to have been the speciality of the Harappa culture. Though glazed faïence and steatite beads continued to be in vogue even in the post-Harappa cultures like the Malwa [4.14.5] as evidenced at NAVDATOLI, the glazed faïence beads of the Indus are characterized by a hard and granular body, silica forming as much as 90% of the material constituting the beads. How exactly the paste was made is difficult to say.

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LOTHAL has given evidence of the kiln in which possibly agate beads were tinted to carnelian. However the find of a circular clay kiln with several unfinished and finished beads near by has not helped in throwing light on all the aspects of bead-making at Lothal. But some details regarding the working of the Lothal furnace can be had. The furnace was circular on plan with a diameter of a little less than 2 m and had four openings in its roof. The sides were plastered with clay. The furnace was constructed in one of the rooms of a house having six rooms. Beyond this and the association of a number of finished and unfinished beads with the furnace referred to above no other details are available.

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No evidence of such furnaces is available in the excavations of the post-Harappa Chalcolithic sites. However it may be noticed that in post-Harappa period the typical long cylinder beads and those with trefoil pattern are totally absent. But, as at NAVDATOLI and KAYATHA, the blue glazed faience beads and disc and microbeads of steatite are associated with post-Harappa cultures.

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Similarly no evidence regarding furnaces has been available in the Mauryan levels, though the Ganga valley sites of this period like KUMRAHAR, ŚRĀVASTĪ, KAUŚĀMBĪ, RAJGHAT⁴ and several others have given an enormous number of beads especially in semiprecious stones. The leech-shaped, the triangular barrel and the truncated bicone square are the typical shapes of this period.

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In the post-Mauryan period UJJAIN has proved to be a significant site as it has given evidence of a furnace used for bead-making. On the floor of a house dated by the excavator to post-200 B.C. have been found a large number of unfinished beads of agate and chalcedony along with a pot full of such beads associated with sandstone grinding slabs marked by deep and long grooves and several long and deep channelled furnaces. The latter were obviously used for heating beads. Except this solitary evidence there is no other evidence in the early historical period.

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SIRPUR in Madhya Pradesh has given evidence in Kalacuri levels of glass beads with crucibles containing glass patch indicating that glass was manufactured there.

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That glass beads were manufactured at NEVASA and KOLHAPUR in Maharashtra in the 14th-15th century has been attested by crudely constructed clay ovens with channelled projections for inserting a pipe for bellows. It is indeed surprising that in spite of a vast number of beads of different materials encountered at different sites in different parts of India the evidence for the actual process of manufacture of beads in natural and artificial material is very meagre. Literary data also do not provide much precise information.

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Apart from the nature of actual furnaces used in the process of bead-making there are certain other distinctive aspects of the technique of manufacture of beads in vogue right from the times of the Harappa culture. For instance beads were subjected to heating in order to accentuate the colours in natural stones. The long cylindrical circular beads from Mohenjo-daro showing a bright red colour is supposed to have been the result of the process of heating. Some of the steatite [6.14] beads of the Indus sites also seem to have been subjected to fire-treatment. At UJJAIN the tinting of carnelian and agate is evidenced not only by the find of a furnace but also by the find near by of an earthen pot stuffed with agate and carnelian beads and with its mouth closed with a tight-fitting lid of white agate. Whereas at Ujjain this evidence comes from *c.* 2nd century B.C. levels, at KAUṆḌINYAPURA in Maharashtra it is from *c.* 2nd century A.D. horizons. After tinting the next stage was that of fashioning the core. As is done at present at Khambat, a large iron nail embedded in a slanting position in the ground and a horn hammer are used for this purpose. How this was done at the early Chalcolithic sites in India is not known. The third stage is that of polishing in which the flaked nodules are held against the rotating surface of an emery wheel which is prepared in a mixture of *kurunda* stones embedded in hard wax and lac. At present unpolished beads are placed in a leather pouch which is made to revolve round and round and the beads get their polish by friction with one another. The high polish on the agate and carnelian beads of the Harappa sites and sites of the Mauryan period was achieved with some such method. The polish on the agate and carnelian beads of the Mauryan period has no parallel.

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The last stage was of perforations. Indian beads show a large variety of perforations. Beads of semiprecious stones are mostly double-perforated, i.e. perforated half-way from both ends. This was done to avoid splitting up of the bead. However it resulted in perforations in a deviated axis which in several cases created difficulty in threading the beads.

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The shape and function of a bead also determined the nature of perforation. For instance a spacer is bound to have more than one perforation, and the terminals from the Harappa sites provide examples of this. These show converging multiple parallel perforations. Faïence spacers from NAVDATOLI, Chalcolithic, are another instance of this. Some beads, as those from Mohenjo-daro and much later ones, as from TRIPURĪ, historical period, show a T-shaped perforation. Such beads might have been used as apex beads (*meru-maṇi*). Beads with right-angled perforation, as at Mahabodhi, and those with V-shaped perforation, as at Mohenjo-daro, Taxila and AHICCHATRĀ, are also known, the latter type of perforation being associated with the ‘leech-shaped’ beads of the Maurya period.

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Quite a large variety is found in the method of decorating beads. The decorations comprise carving, etching, tinting, cementing, inlaying, composing and glazing. All these are found in Indian beads of different periods. Evidence for glazing is not available prior to the Christian era. The glaze, at many of sites in India, is by nature a composition of a vitreous substance or frit. The heating of beads with a view to obtaining deeper colours has already been referred to. The antiquity of this process goes back to the period of the Harappa culture. Cementing is a process in which two different kinds of materials are brought together with a flux of adhesive. At Mohenjo-daro beads composed of pink and white slices of limestone have been cemented together to form one bead. In another type of cementing only a portion of the entire surface is covered with small patches of contrasting material cemented at intervals with small patches of contrasting material joined at intervals or in saucered layer. The ‘eye beads’ are the best examples of cemented beads. The earliest specimen of the cemented variety of eye beads is available from the Mauryan levels at Taxila. They have a wide distribution in India both in time and space. Inlaying of beads is a process in which a cavity or depression in the fabric of a bead is filled in by a foreign matter flush with the surface by appropriately shaped pieces. The earliest specimens of such inlaid beads are known from Mohenjo-daro and LOTHAL, but this practice seems to have died out after the initial centuries of the Christian era. Etching was a special process of decoration and seems to have been in vogue in India right from the times of the Harappa culture till the early medieval period. Beads were etched by a process of heating them and by drawing decorative patterns directly on the surface of the beads. (These three processes have been referred to earlier.) Beads with a white pattern on natural stone have been reported from the Harappa as well as Gupta sites, whereas those flooded with white over which black patterns are effected are known from the Harappa sites and continue till about the 3rd century A.D. but are absent at the Megalithic [4.17] sites. Beads with black patterns directly etched on the surface are extremely rare.

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As in technique Indian beads show quite a range in the use of materials. The materials can be grouped into three broad categories, to wit: non-stone, comprising materials like steatite, metals, wood, ivory, glass, etc.; semiprecious stones, like carnelian, agate, etc.; and precious stones. Some materials are restricted to certain time-spans and some others to specific regions. For instance steatite is known to have been employed for beads in the Harappa as well as post-Harappa sites—discs, short cylinders and segmented ones being the favourite shapes. Steatite was also used in turning out in moulds shapes like those of the star, chamfered cubes, etc. Similarly spacers and terminals were also moulded in steatite and some beads in this material were also painted. Steatite continued to be used, on the present showing, up to the initial centuries of the Christian era. Like steatite faïence was also a favourite material in the Harappa and Chalcolithic cultures. Decorations like carving and glazing were also associated with faïence. While faïence continued for some time later, it is totally absent in the Mauryan period but occurs again for a few centuries of the Christian era. While there is not much evidence of the use of bone and ivory, shell was used extensively right from the Chalcolithic to the medieval period. In most cases these beads display marks of sawing or rubbing. At the early historical sites, along with shell ivory was also employed and TER, BESNAGAR and UJJAIN were well-known centres of ivory working. Like ivory coral was also utilized for beads and amulets but rather scantily. Since the Mediterranean coral is deeper in colour than the Indian it was imported into India, and hence one comes across a relative abundance of coral in the initial couple of centuries of the Christian era. The very nature of coral twigs helped to turn out short cylinder beads. However amulets shaped like the *tri-ratna* are reported from a number of Buddhist *stūpa* sites. Dentalium, used for beads, has so far been reported from the Mesolithic site of LANGHNAJ in Gujarat and needs no further comment.

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The most common material in the non-stone category is terracotta which was used extensively both in time and space. Apart from abundance of raw material, its plasticity and ease in perforation were additional assets. Some of the shapes, as for instance the arecanut-shaped beads, are 'ageless' and are reported from the 3rd millennium B.C. to the 16-17th century A.D. Moulded beads predominate in the Gupta period, whereas appliqué work is more associated with Śuṅga-Sātavāhana period.

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Glass beads deserve a separate mention because of their abundance but they are very imperfectly recorded. No true glass is reported from the Harappa sites of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, but its people were able to mould and fuse excellent articles of faïence and glazed quartz beads with a frit akin to glass. However the Chalcolithic levels of MASKI (1st millennium B.C.) and the PGW [4.15] levels of HASTINĀPURA have produced evidence of glass. The *Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa* and the *Vinaya-piṭaka* refer to *kāca* but the first unmistakable and a relatively large number of them are reported from Bhir Mound, Taxila. In the early Mauryan period glass beads of diverse colours and forms are available. Stratified eye beads involving an advanced technique are reported from Taxila from *c.* 3rd century B.C. onwards. ŚRĀVASTĪ, KAUŚĀMBĪ, PĀṬALIPUTRA, MAHESHWAR, KOPIA, AHICCHATRĀ, RAJGHAT⁴, TRIPURĪ and several other sites have given abundant evidence of glass beads of various types and techniques. By the beginning of the Christian era the use of glass became quite common and intaglios, finger rings, bezels, lenses and miniature casets were manufactured. In the history of Indian glass and glass beads two periods are significant. The first is the Graeco-Roman and the second is the medieval. In the former examples like those of lace glass, ribbed glass, swirled glass, cameo glass, mosaic glass and millefiori glass have been reported from sites like Taxila, ARIKAMEDU, NEVASA, KARWAN and UJJAIN. These are obviously non-indigenous techniques and it is clear that these beads were imported into India or were manufactured by Graeco-Roman artisans settled in India. It may however be noted here that except at Taxila no proper and precise documentation is available. Nevertheless local artisans seem to have mastered the technique of differently coloured glass and moulded glass. This is evidenced by the Sātavāhana sites of NASIK, KARAD, KOLHAPUR, MASKI, CHANDRAVALLI and a large number of other ones. Beads of deep blue glass with a white streak and the red-on-white popularly known as 'Venetian' beads are typical of the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D. in India. Another fossil-type of the early historical period is the 'gold-foil' bead, the technique of which was invented by the Romans and was introduced into India through trade contacts. The technique involved the sandwiching of a gold leaf between two layers of transparent glass. Lug-collared and *āmalaka* beads are again typical shapes of the early centuries of the Christian era. Indigenously made different types of 'eye beads' involving the sticking of pellets of blue or black colour over a white glass body are again very common in the Ganga valley in the Mauryan to Gupta periods. But swirled glass beads are very rare in India. Another noteworthy variety is of cane glass of Indian red, deep cobalt-blue or pale-purple shades. However cane glass is found to have been used for beads in India only in the early historical period. Semiprecious stones were preferred to glass and the *Divyāvadāna*, a late Gupta work, specifically warns against cheap imitation of precious stones by Ceylonese merchants in glass.

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The second important phase in respect of glass in India is the early and late medieval periods. For instance the Bahmani glass is generally of a fine quality. Introduction of opaque white glass beads with impressed design and beads of rolled batches of green and yellow (outer) glass are the distinctive innovations of the Bahmani period. A further advance is seen during the Mughal period. The luxurious life of nobles and feudatories also promoted the import of Venetian glass. The artisans under the Mughals also perfected the technique of glazed tiles. Indigenous centres like Agra and Kapadvanj in Gujarat developed and turned out bottles, scent-sprinklers and flower-pots. However glass beads and bangles for the commoners remained essentially a cottage industry which did not reach that level of such fine craftsmanship as is discerned in the Venetian and Bohemian glass.

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It is rather difficult to summarize the variety of materials used and the shapes fashioned in semiprecious stones. It would be no exaggeration to hold that except Egypt no other country shows such an exuberant use of stone beads as India. The reasons for this are not far to seek. Firstly there was abundant raw material available to manufacture beads, and secondly some stones, according to ancient Indian literature, had curative and magical properties. In general it may be said that in the crystalline variety of quartzes rock crystal, amethyst, yellow or rose quartz predominate, while in chalcedonic quartzes, carnelian, agate—both plain and banded—are by far the best favourites. Jasper of various varieties, plasma heliotrope, chalcedony, etc., are also largely used. Lapis lazuli, hornblende, serpentine malachite and sang-i-absi are sparingly used. Precious stones like ruby, emerald, topaz and sapphire, though often referred to in literature, are exceedingly rare among archaeological finds. So also are pecious metals like gold and silver.

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Several semiprecious stones were used for beads right from the times of the Harappa culture to the late medieval period. It would be futile to review the various shapes executed in the semiprecious beads. But a few observations in respect of certain materials and distinctive datable shapes may not be out of place. For example beads of alabaster or carbonate of lime have been reported only from Mohenjo-daro. Amazonite or green felspar beads are rather rare in India, which may be due to the brittleness of the material. Beads of amber are very rare obviously because it is not locally available but came to India possibly from the Baltic range through Roman traders and from Burma *via* Dacca during Mughal days. Beryl (*vaidūrya* of Indian literature) is found to have been used very rarely for beads though quality beryl is available in Ladakh in Kashmir and that of an inferior quality in Rajasthan, Bihar, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Carnelian and agate are by far the most profusely used materials for beads. The *Periplus* refers to a large-scale export of carnelian from Barygaza (Bharuch in Gujarat) and further states that carnelian also came to Khambat from PAITHAN and TER in Maharashtra. Carnelian beads—etched and plain—are also associated with the Megalithic burials of peninsular India [4.17.7-10] and in the foothills of the Himālayas it is used as a talisman for warding off fever. Next to agate and carnelian, crystal seems to have been widely used for bead-making, especially from the Mauryan period and in the initial centuries of the Christian era. Jasper is rather rare at the Harappa sites but is met with in the form of beads in post-Harappa Chalcolithic cultures [4.14], megaliths [4.17] and early historical sites [4.18]. Green jasper was supposed to have an amuletic value. Garnet beads are absent in the Chalcolithic sites but are a favourite in the early historical period. It is supposed to have been introduced to the w. through Alexander's conquests. Lapis is not indigenous to India, its major source being Badakshan in Afghanistan and Iran, but has been in vogue right from the 3rd millennium B.C. In the historical period square cylinder is the standardized shape. The few and far between lapis beads found in India present a soiled variety with dull white specks and has been found in the s. Indian megaliths as well. Onyx or layered agate has also a wider use in time and space as its beads have been reported from Mohenjo-daro and Chanhu-daro as well as from several early historical sites. About the beginning of the Christian era it was exported to the Roman empire from Bharuch. Opal beads are also rare in India because real opal is almost absent in India. Several varieties of quartz were used for the manufacture of beads but polished quartz beads became common in India from the beginning of the Christian era. Beads of turquoise are rare. Mohenjo-daro and the historical horizons at Charsada and RAIRH in Rajasthan have produced them. The material is absent in India and the best known source, at least for the Harappa sites, must have been the Persian province of Khorasan. Serpentine used for beads is reported from Harappa, from BRAHMAGIRI in the Megalithic context and from KAUŚĀMBĪ and AHICCHATRĀ in the early historical context. The material is found mostly in Afghanistan, but smaller deposits are also known in Kashmir, Andhra and Gujarat.

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A survey of the materials used in the manufacture of beads urges some general observations. For example faience and steatite were abundantly used in the Harappa culture; semiprecious stones, including some of non-indigenous sources, came to be used on a large scale in the early historical period; real precious stones were rarely used for beads; some materials like lapis were imported; glass was known from PGW and Megalithic times; metals like gold, silver and copper, were not much used for beads; and finally some materials like shell, terracotta, agate and carnelian seem to have been used for beads for centuries over a very wide region.

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Apart from the use of some materials in certain periods, particular shapes also were in vogue in certain periods and thus provide a clue to relative dating. Barrels, cylinders, sphericals, tubulars, bicones, oblates, tables and multifaceted geometrical shapes are too numerous to be catalogued here. However some shapes are relatively restricted to certain periods. For instance long cylinder is a typical Harappan shape; short barrel circular beads are mostly restricted to between the Maurya and Gupta periods; tubular barrels are extremely rare; barrel tubulars belong mostly to the early historical period; barrel hexagonals occur mostly between the Maurya and Gupta periods; flattened barrěl hexagonal beads are frequent in Maurya-Sātavāhana period; barrel triangular is a typically Mauryan shape; collared barrels rarely occur after the Gupta period; barrel gadroons occur in large numbers in the initial centuries of the Christian era; cylinders with square section occur mostly between the 2nd century b.c. and 2nd century a.d.; short cylinders of composite glass—especially those with lemon-yellow matrix covered with green glass—are a fossil-type of the Sātavāhana period; long truncated bicones do not generally occur in the post-Sātavāhana period; bicone pentagonal beads are restricted mostly to the chronological range of 100 b.c. to a.d. 100; twisted pentagonal bicone or ‘double pentagons’ occur between the 5th century b.c. and 1st century a.d.; collared tablets occur mostly in the Sātavāhana levels; gadrooned segmented beads of glass occur frequently between the time-span of *c.* 1st century b.c. and 3rd century a.d.; thin discs of steatite, with or without a mid-rib, are a typical Harappan shape; toggle beads occur mostly in the pre-Gupta period; and granulated beads are reported mostly from the 1st-2nd century a.d. horizons. Spacers, though displaying quite a range of shapes, are difficult to date typewise.

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Like geometrically shaped beads, amulets [12.1] and pendants also have a wide range of shapes and motifs. They are also executed in a wide range of materials. While pendants were decorative, amulets were believed to have a magical as well as curative value and have been referred to in literature. Eight auspicious symbols (*aṣṭamaṅgala*) known to literature are shown as forming a garland on the n. pillar of the w. gateway of Stūpa 1 of Sanchi. Individually too, some symbols were considered to be auspicious, for instance the *svastika*, *nandyāvarta*, *ghaṭa*, *tri-ratna* and pipal leaf, which are repeated in various materials. Shapes such as amulets looking like tiger-claw were supposed to ward off the effects of the evil eye. Some other amulets were shaped after animals, for instance the lion, elephant, bull, horse, ram, dog, cat, monkey, *makara*, frog, tortoise and so on. The frog charm is referred to in the *Atharvaveda* as effective against fever, whereas tortoise amulets were supposed to be conducive to longevity. In addition amulets in the shape of birds and parts of the human body like the leg, the hand and the head are also known from different sites.

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Apart from references in literature and actual examples recovered in excavations, there is a large variety of beads, pendants and amulets depicted in sculpture, especially of the Śuṅga-Sātavāhana, Gupta and medieval periods. Though datable they have not yet been exhaustively studied. Similarly there is a vast material from excavations and explorations which remains yet unpublished. Moreover there are several private collections in different parts of India and reserve collections in museums which are awaiting a proper study.

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[For the description of geometrically shaped beads the following conventions are usually followed. In regard to size, a ‘short’ bead is one in which the thickness, i.e. section, is greater than this length; a ‘standard’ bead has both the section and length more or less equal; in a ‘long’ bead, the section is appreciably shorter than the length. For the description of the shape of a bead, hold the bead with its hole in the horizontal position and parallel to the eye. The elevation thus obtained is its primary shape, such as barrel, tubular, cylinder, bicone, oblate, etc. The cross-section through the centre of the beads cutting the hole at right angles gives its secondary shape, for example, circular, elliptical, square, hexagonal, etc. In addition geometrically shaped beads may be spheroid, cornerless cube (i.e. multifaceted) and so on.]

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Beck, H., 1928, in *Archaeologia*, 77 (for classification and nomenclature of beads); 1941, *Beads from Taxila*, Mem. ASI, 65. Banerjee, N.R., 1959, in *Jour. Asiatic Soc.*, 1, New Series, pp. 189-96 (for bead-making technique at Ujjain). Dikshit, M.G., 1951-2, in *Bull. Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay*, 2, pp. 86-99 (for amulets); 1952, *Some Beads from Kondapur*, Hyderabad Arch. Series, 16, Hyderabad; 1952, in *AI*, 8, pp. 33-63 (for Ahicchatrā beads). Dikshit, M.G., & Deo, S.B., unpublished, *Indian Beads—a Study*. Lucas, A., 1934, *Ancient Egyptian Materials & Industries*, London. Rawlinson, H.G., 1926, *Intercourse between India & the w. World*, Cambridge. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—S.B. deo

10.2 Gems, Inlays and Intaglios

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Gems consist of precious and semiprecious stones sometimes inlaid in ornaments such as necklaces, pendants, bracelets and finger rings. Gem stones carved in the negative are also found as separate pieces; those found in Bhir Mound, Taxila (Young, 1946), are thought to be of Iono-Greek in origin. These are more in the nature of seals [3.2] than of personal ornaments.

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When inlaid, the pieces are cut to shape and cemented in cells formed by strips of metal soldered to a background. The surface of the inlay is generally cut flush with the top edge of the cell; sometimes when the cells are not contiguous the inlay is cut *en cabochon* to rise above the cell, the latter turned inwards at the top to hold the inlay securely. This method is frequently adopted in ring bezels.

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Inlaying of gems has a long history in Mesopotamia as in the Royal Graves in Ur, Egypt, Syria, Aegean Sea region, etc. In historical times inlay was regularly practised in Greek jewellery from about the 3rd century B.C. after Alexander's conquest brought to Greece fashions and luxuries from abroad. In Roman jewellery gem stones and glass of different shapes set in small clusters were extremely popular.

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In India the use of semiprecious stones for the manufacture of beads and pendants [10.1] was known from early times. But the art of gem setting in jewellery is seen for the first time in Sirkap, Taxila, datable to the 1st century A.D. In necklaces, bracelets and finger rings gem stones of bright colours were inlaid by cementing with lac, amber and paste. In necklaces with pendants white felspar, lapis lazuli, rock crystal, turquoise, etc., surrounded by gold granules are inlaid. Some of them are also inlaid *en cabochon* either with garnet or blue turquoise. Bracelets of gold consist of openwork type with square ‘gate’ clasps encrusted with gems such as white orthoclase felspar and circular settings with amber. Marshall traces its origin to the 5th-4th century B.C and to the Scytho-Greek people.

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Finger rings of gold from Sirkap are also inlaid with gems. The rings have hoops with flat raised bezels and are inlaid with gems or semiprecious stones and paste cemented with adhesive material. The gems include crystal, garnet, malachite, orthoclase felspar, etc.

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Intaglios have designs cut or engraved in a hard stone or metal, depicting scenes, portraits, busts, animals, zodiacal signs, planetary objects and other terrestrial designs. The early ones at Sirkap belong to the Parthian period and the rest are datable to the 4th-5th century. They are cut *en cabochon* in stones such as malachite, jacinth, carnelian and chert as well as in glass. The engravings mostly depict Graeco-Roman divine figures such as Winged Nike and Athen; others have various figures and busts. One of them, of chert, is engraved with the legend *Śrī-Kuleśvaradāsa* in Brāhmī of the 5th century.

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A cameo from Karwan (Mehta, 1952) prepared in transparent chalcedony has a semirectangular shape and rounded sides. It is engraved with the bust of a lady with flocks of hair falling on the back. The features indicate its Roman origin; it is datable to the 1st century A.D. At Ellora clearance of the caves has revealed an oval of ring stone with the intaglio of Capricorns, a zodiacal sign along with objects datable to the 3rd-4th century.

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The Indus people extensively decorated their objects with inlay of ivory, shell and faïence, but such objects were perhaps mainly restricted to furniture and the like (Marshall, 1931; Mackay, 1938). It is not unlikely that they inlaid ornaments as well with shell and faïence in a limited way (Vats, 1940). Later, except at Taxila, where there are various inlaid ornaments, inlay with semiprecious stones of varied colours seems to have been confined to finger rings, which had, for holding the inlaid piece, hoops within and were convex outside expanding outwards to flat raised bezel made for this purpose. While some of them were carved with human and animal figurines, the popular form seems to have an inlay of semiprecious stones cemented with lac or paste.

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Finger rings of gold have been reported from Taxila only; they are often inset with crystal, garnet, malachite, etc., and in addition have filigree and granular beading work. They belong to the Graeco-Roman series. Some of the finest rings datable to c. 100 B.C. to A.D. 100 are known from the site. Some have broad bezels inset with glass and paste and others have motifs such as the *svastika*, winged Pegasus and other intaglios with Hellenistic and Graeco-Roman motifs engraved on metal bezels.

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Finger rings of copper and soapstone of the 3rd-2nd century B.C are known from BESNAGAR, ERAN, MAHESWAR, NAGDA, NEVASA, PRAKASH, SAMBHAR, TRIPURĪ, etc. They are simple but with shallow depressions for inlay. A soapstone one from TRIPURĪ has the figure of mother goddess and Garuḍa holding serpents in the hoop. Another from BESNAGAR has symbols of *nandipada* and *svastika* inscribed below in Brāhmī of the 1st century B.C. A signet ring of thin circular gold sheet is known from ERAN. HASTINĀPURA and RAJGHAT have also yielded finger rings with broad bezels datable from c. 1st century B.C. to 2nd century A.D. BHOKARDAN, MAHESHWAR and RANG MAHAL have yielded copper finger rings with a flat top or broad bezel for inlay in levels of the 2nd and 3rd centuries. At SAMBHAR a ring has its bezel forming a parallelogram. Another one comes from TRIPURĪ. Clearance of the Ellora caves has revealed an inscribed copper signet ring datable to c. 300-400. Another is an oval ring stone with the engraving of a crab, a zodiacal sign. A copper finger ring from BHITA datable to the 7th century has a raised bezel. A specimen from NAGARA of the 9th century has a flattened bezel with an incised design.

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Late historical bronze sculptures were often inlaid with semiprecious stones, variously in the eyes and on the haloes and pedestals. At RATNAGIRI, for example, were found such Buddhist inlaid bronzes.

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Cyril, A., 1971, *Jewel of the Pharaohs*, London, pp. 33-5. Higgins, R.A., 1961, *Greek & Roman Jewellery*, London, pp. 28-30. Mackay, E.J.H., 1938, *Further Excavations at Mohenjo-daro*, Delhi, 1, p. 584. Marshall, J., 1931, *Mohenjo-daro & the Indus Civilization*, London, 2, pp. 565 etc.; 1951, *Taxila*, Cambridge, 1, pp. 160, 180, 220, 385; 2, pp. 621, 634, 635, 638-9, 642-3, 648, 650. Mehta, R.N.. 1952. in *Jour. M.S. Univ. Baroda*, 1, 2, pp. 133-5. Vats, M.S., 1940, *Excavations at Harappa*, Delhi, 1, p. 462. Wallis Budge, E.A., 1961, *Amulets & Talismans*, New York, p. 390. Young, G.M., 1946, in *AI*, 1, pp. 27-36. For other sites see respective entries in vol. II.—. MARGABANDHU

10.3 Other Ornaments

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In India ornaments were treasured not only because of their decorative and intrinsic value but also because they were considered auspicious. It is however strange that in spite of the profusion of ornaments displayed in plastic arts and described in literature actual finds in excavations are scarce. This may largely be attributed to the practice of cremating the dead with ornaments on, as a result of which no graves—treasure house of jewellery as in C. Asia and elsewhere—have been left to the archaeologist.

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A study of ornaments based on excavated finds only remains incomplete unless supplemented by texts, sculptures, paintings and the like. This is specially true of the historical period. On sculptures, for example, we find portrayal of a wide variety of ornaments like girdles, *udara-bandha*, *yajñopavīta*, amulets worn across the chest, *channavīra* and ornaments for the back of the hand, but these are absent in archaeological finds. Texts further add to our knowledge and provide vivid descriptions of the materials used for ornaments and their mode of manufacture. These have not been utilized below. Further owing to the geographical limitations of this work the treatment of sites in Pakistan, which have yielded rich hoards of ornaments, has been minimal.

10.3.1 Head ornaments

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The bulk of head ornaments displaying an amazing variety comes from the Harappa [4.9] sites. Cones of gold, silver, ivory, shell, terracotta and faïence were used for adorning the head. Another popular head ornament of faïence was fan-shaped. An 8-shaped ornament from Harappa was possibly used for decorating the bun at the back of the head. Fillets with attached round ornaments were worn on the forehead. Hairpins were made of bronze, ivory, steatite and shell and their heads were tastefully decorated with spirals and animal figures, thus presenting foreign analogies (Wheeler, 1968).

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Later on head ornaments present a poor array. The Megalithic [4.17] urn burials at ADICHANALLUR have yielded gold and bronze diadems worn on the forehead. Two large shells with copper riveting from the Mauryan levels at NASIK have also been described as head ornaments. Crescent-shaped terracotta pendants from BRAHMAPURI and KONDAPUR, dating to the Sātavāhana period, may have been worn on the forehead. Hairpins are scarce and are restricted to a few plain specimens of copper and ivory. A few ivory combs [18.3] recovered from the early historical levels at UJJAIN, NEVASA and TRIPURĪ may also have been used as head ornaments.

10.3.2 Nose ornaments

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Mackay, 1938, has identified some studs found at Mohenjo-daro as nose ornaments. NEVASA and KAUŚĀMBĪ are said to have yielded noserings belonging to the early centuries of the Christian era. The evidence provided by sculptures and literary sources on the use of nose ornaments is however negative and it is the general opinion of scholars (Chandra, 1964, pp. 45-56) that nose ornaments were first introduced in India only in the 16th-17th centuries.

10.3.3 Ear ornaments

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Holes in the ears of terracotta figurines from the Harappa sites suggest that women of the Harappa culture had their ears pierced for wearing ornaments. These sites have yielded ear tops with a knob at the back and a variety of ear pendants made of faïence and steatite. Ear-rings of copper, bronze and silver have also been recovered. Another form of ear ornament was in the shape of copper cones.

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An interesting specimen of ear ornaments of bone in the shape of an arrowhead has been recovered from the Neolithic levels of CHIRAND. The Chalcolithic sites of AHAR² and NAVDATOLI have yielded ear studs and cylindrical ornaments made of terracotta, bone, shell and ivory. Megalithic MAHURJHARI has yielded gold spirals used as ear-rings, circular ear ornaments of gold and a complete ear ornament of gold wire with three coils inserted into it. Pulley-shaped ear ornaments of crystal, agate, jasper and chert have been reported from a large number of early historical sites throughout the country. Their earliest occurrence is at HASTINĀPURA in the PGW [4.15] levels and they are quite popular during Mauryan and Sātavāhana times. SISUPALGARH has yielded a few specimens from its mid-levels. At SALIHUNDAM terracotta spools have been reported as late as 5th-8th centuries. Another type of wide prevalence during the early centuries of the Christian era was disc-shaped with a cylindrical stem. VAIŚĀLĪ has produced three different types of gold ear ornaments dating to the 4th-5th centuries. One is an S-shaped ornament decorated with a rosette, commas, cones and acanthus, another is a pair of ear-rings with clamps and the third is a pair of rings fitted with cylindrical tubes and top bosses.

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*10.3.4 Neck ornaments.* Beads of all shapes and sizes are of abundant occurrence in excavations [10.1], but complete necklaces of beads are rare. Of the prehistoric sites mention may be made of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, LOTHAL, KAYATHA, NEVASA, CHANDOLI, JUNAPANI and MAHURJHARI. These have yielded necklaces made of semiprecious stones, shell, gold, copper and steatite.

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Pendants of various materials and of different forms and shapes have been found in profusion. Of great interest are clay bullae, possibly worn around the neck [6.4].

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Amulets [12.1] have been worn from the earliest times, possibly as a protection against the evil eye. A large number of amulets in the shape of animals like tortoise, elephant, lion, bull and birds have been recovered from the Harappa sites. They continue to be popular till the early centuries of the Christian era. Not uncommon are amulets in the form of human figures, the earliest occurrence being that from a Harappa site.

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*10.3.5 Arm and wrist ornaments.* The earliest occurrence of bangles made of shell, copper and terracotta is in the pre-Harappa levels of KALIBANGAN. The Harappa settlements have yielded a large number of bangles of different materials such as gold, silver, copper, faïence, shell, steatite and terracotta. Heart-shaped bangles of faïence with cog-wheel edges come from Harappa. The only Neolithic [4.6] site to yield bangles is CHIRAND. The materials are limited to tortoise shell, bone and terracotta. Arm and wrist ornaments from Chalcolithic [4.14] assemblages comprise bangles of terracotta, shell and copper; they are generally plain, the exceptions being decorated shell bangles from PRAKASH, spiral copper bangles from PANDU RAJAR DHIBI and ivory bangles from INAMGAON. Copper and terracotta were also materials used for bangles in the OCW culture [4.12] as evidenced at LAL QILA.

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Of great importance is the discovery of monochrome glass bangles from PGW levels at HASTINĀPURA and ROPAR. This greatly pushes back the antiquity of monochrome glass bangles in India. Somewhat later evidence comes from UJJAIN and ŚRĀVASTĪ. Since then such bangles have continued in use and are popular to the present day. Polychrome bangles however came into vogue much later and the evidence from PRAKASH, UJJAIN and YELLESWARAM suggests the close of the 1st millennium A.D. as the probable date.

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Excavation of the Megalithic [4.17] graves at MAHURJHARI has produced copper bangles with etched decoration on the outer surface of the terminals.

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Bangles of shell, terracotta, copper and bronze, both plain and decorated, are of widespread occurrence at the early and late historical sites throughout the country. Of interest are decorated shell bangles recovered from Mauryan and late Mauryan levels at AHAR,² RAIRH, NEVASA and MAHESHWAR. These have a broad groove on the outer surface for gold-leaf inlay [10.2]. Some bangle fragments have copper rivetments, also probably for decoration.

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Bangles of agate and chalcedony have been found in the Mauryan levels at KAUṆḌINYAPURA. Gold bangles are considerably rarer, one of the few being from the early historical levels of BRAHMAGIRI. In contrast to this a good number of gold bangles and bracelets have been recovered from Taxila.

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Even though terracotta and sculptures point to the use of armlets, these are not common from excavations. Possibly large-sized bangles may have been used as armlets.

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*10.3.6 Finger rings.* Plain rings of copper and terracotta are of widespread occurrence from ancient times. Other materials used are gold, silver, ivory, shell and during historical times glass. Of interest is a circular brass signet ring from BESNAGAR (1st century B.C.).

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*10.3.7 Foot ornaments.* Two skeletons with anklets of paste beads found at Harappa (Wheeler, 1947, p. 86) testify to the prevalence of anklets during Harappa times. In excavated finds anklets are limited to those of copper and are reported from very few sites. An interesting find of a foot ornament is that of a Harappa painted terracotta ring, possibly a toe-ring.

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*10.3.8 Miscellaneous.* Buttons and brooches have been reported from the Harappa sites.

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Chandra, Rai Govind, 1964, *Studies in the Development of Ornaments & Jewellery in India*, Varanasi (with full bibliography). Dikshit, M.G., 1951-2, in *Bull. Prince of Wales Museum*, Bombay, 2 (for amulets); 1967, *Glass in India*, Bombay. Mackay, E.J.H., 1938, *Further Excavations at Mohenjo-daro*, Delhi. Margabandhu, C., 1976, in *Vishveshvaranand Indological Jour.*, 14, pp. 274-82 (for pendants from Amreli). Marshall, J., 1931, *Mohenjo-daro & the Indus Civilization*, London, 2. Vats, M.S., 1940, *Excavations at Harappa*, Delhi, 1. Wheeler, R.E.M., 1947, in *AI*, 3; 1968, *Indus Civilization*, Cambridge. For other sites see respective entries in vol II. —H.P. RAY

Linked texts (43)