佛祖統紀 32

English (machine translation) 32

Language: English

32.1

Composed by Śramaṇa Zhipan of Donghu in Siming under the Jingding era of the Song

32.2

Treatise on the Names and Entities of the Worlds, Part 15, Section 2

The rise of territories: Emperor Ku had the Nine Provinces (Ji, Yan, Qing, Xu, Yang, Jing, Yu, Liang, and Yong). Shun had twelve provinces (because the land of Ji Province was vast, he additionally established the three provinces of Bing, You, and Ying). Yu of the Xia regulated the waters and land, distinguishing the Nine Provinces. The Zhou largely enfeoffed states, amounting to some one thousand eight hundred states. In the Spring and Autumn period, there were one hundred and twenty-four states appearing in the classics and commentaries. Down to the Warring States period, the Seven Heroes were unified into the Qin. Chagrined by the defects of the Zhou enfeoffment, they abolished the marquises and established governors, dividing all under heaven into thirty-six commanderies. When they pacified the Hundred Yue in the south, they further established the four commanderies of Minzhong, Nanhai, Guilin, and Xiang. The two Han dynasties governed by thirteen provinces (Emperor Wu of the Han established inspectors for the thirteen divisions). The Jin had nineteen provinces. The Tang had ten circuits, and later fifteen, with observation commissioners, having altogether three hundred and twenty-eight commandery-prefectures and one thousand five hundred and seventy-three counties. The Song dynasty in the Yuanfeng era promulgated the *Jiuyu zhi* (Record of the Nine Realms) composed by Li Dechu and others, divided into twenty-three circuits (shown on the map), with altogether two hundred and ninety-five commanderies and one thousand one hundred and thirty-one counties. The loose-rein prefectures beyond the pale of civilization are not included.

32.5

In the flourishing times of the Han, the lands within its four bounds were Lelang to the east, Dunhuang to the west, Rinan to the south, and Yanmen to the north: nine thousand li from east to west, and thirteen thousand li from south to north.

32.6

The Ancient Great Wall: During the Warring States period, Zhao built it, from Dai along the Yin Mountains to Gaoque (two prefecture names), to defend against the Hu. Yan also built one north of Gui Prefecture extending to Liaodong. The First Emperor of Qin ordered Meng Tian to construct the Great Wall, beginning at Lintao and entering Gaoli.

32.7

The Four Great Rivers: The Yellow River issues from Jishi. The Yangzi River issues from Min Mountain (Jiacheng County in Song Prefecture). The Huai River issues from Tongbai (Tang Prefecture). The Ji River issues from Wangwu Mountain (Meng Prefecture, now Heyang Superior Prefecture).

32.8

The Three Rivers: Running down from Yuzhang to enter Pengli, and flowing eastward to the sea is the Southern River. Running from Mount Min in Shu to the Nine Rivers and Pengli to enter the sea is the Middle River. Guided from Fanzhong, the Yang flows east to become the Han, passes through Sanshi and Dabie to enter the Yangzi River and converge at Pengli, flowing into the sea as the Northern River. From Pengli upward there are two, and from Xiakou upward there are three; going down to Moling and Jingkou to enter the sea, they are no longer three.

32.9

The Nine Rivers: Gejin and Tuhai are in present-day Ying Prefecture; Goupan, Taishi, and Husu are in present-day Cang Prefecture; Majia is in present-day Ji Prefecture; Fufu and Jianjie are obscure and unverifiable, but should lie between Dongguang, Chengping, and Ge County. Examining them according to the words of Xu Shang of the Han, Tuhai is the northernmost and Gejin is the southernmost. Tuhai was likely the original course of the River; flowing eastward it divided into eight. Xiaobai of Qi dammed them into one. Present-day areas east of Gonggao in Hejian, and Gejin in Pingyuan, often preserve their remains; this was probably damming its eight branches and consolidating them back into Tuhai (*Jiuyu zhi*).

32.10

The Five Sacred Peaks: The Central Peak, Mount Song, is in Luo Prefecture (the Western Capital). The Eastern Peak, Mount Tai, is in Yan Prefecture. The Southern Peak, Mount Heng, is in Tan Prefecture. The Western Peak, Mount Hua, is in Hua Prefecture. The Northern Peak, Mount Chang, is in Zhending Superior Prefecture.

32.11

The Eastern Barbarians. At first, King Wu of Zhou enfiefed Jizi in Chaoxian. The Han destroyed it and established the Xuantu Commandery. ○ The state of Buyeo (Fuyu) is one thousand li north of Xuantu; it was originally the land of the Ye. ○ Goguryeo (Gaogouli): its founding king was Jumong (Zhumeng), who came from Buyeo and resided in Shenggu City. It was named Goguryeo, and he accordingly took Gao as his lineage surname. It lies one thousand li from Liaodong; to the south it borders Chaoxian and the Yemaek, to the east it borders Okjeo (Woju), and to the north it borders Buyeo. The people all settle according to the mountains. ○ As for the Three Han: the first is Mahan, comprising fifty-four states in the west, bordering Lelang to the north and the Wa state to the south. The second is Jinhan (Chenhan), comprising twelve states in the east, bordering the Yemaek to the north; it is also called Qinhan, as it is said that people of Qin fled corvée labor and came to the Han realm. The third is Byeonhan (Bianhan), comprising twelve states south of Jinhan, bordering Wa to the south. Mahan was the largest and ruled over the entire territory of the Three Han. ○ Silla (Xinluo) is of the Jinhan stock; it lies southeast of Goguryeo, occupying the former Han Lelang commandery. The land is largely mountainous and rugged; its writing system, armor, and weapons are identical to those of China. ○ Baekje (Baiji) was a vassal state of Mahan on the old territory of Daifang. It was originally named because a hundred families crossed over together. To the east it borders Silla and Goguryeo; to the southwest it is bounded by the great ocean. It has monks, nuns, monasteries, and stūpas; the people cherish historical records and are quite skilled in composing literary texts. ○ Yilou was the ancient state of Sushen, more than one thousand li northeast of Buyeo; where its northern boundary ends is unknown. Its people have great strength and courage; their arrows use hazel wood and blue stone for arrowheads. The climate is extremely cold, and they always live in subterranean caves. ○ Liaodong Commandery: the Great Liao River emerges beyond the border and flows south into the sea, covering twelve hundred li. In Lingzhi County of Liaoxi there is Guzhu City, the ancient state of Boyi. ○ The state of Wa lies southeast of Baekje and Silla, three thousand li across land and water, inhabiting mountainous islands. During the Han and Wei dynasties, more than thirty states communicated through interpreters with China, all claiming the title of king. The Great King of Wa resides in Yamatai (Yamadui); the land lies east of Kuaiji. It is their custom to tattoo their bodies, and they claim to be descendants of Taibo. One thousand li east of Wa is the state called Gounu (Kunu); four thousand li to the south is the Pygmy state (Zhuru), where the people are three to four chi tall. Sailing southeast from the Pygmy state for one year brings one to the Naked state and the Black-Teeth state. The Wa state first sought and obtained Buddhist scriptures from Baekje. In the thirteenth year of the Daye era of the Sui, they dispatched an envoy to present tribute, accompanied by several dozen monks who came to study the Buddha-Dharma. ○ The state of Liuqiu resides on oceanic islands, directly east of Jian'an Commandery, reached by five days' travel by water. Emperor Yang dispatched Chen Leng to their country, who captured men and women and loaded military provisions before returning. ○ The Emishi (Xia'yi): during the reign of Emperor Taizong of the Tang, the Wa state sent an envoy who came to court accompanied by Emishi people. When Emperor Gaozong pacified Goguryeo, the Wa state sent an envoy to congratulate him, and for the first time changed its name to Nihon (Riben), stating that their state is in the east, near the place where the sun rises. ○ The state of Fusang lies in the Eastern Sea. In the beginning of the Yongyuan era of the Qi, the monk Huishen came to Jiankang and stated that his country is thirty thousand li east of the Great Han. In the fifth year of the Daming era of the Song, a monk from the country of Jibin went to that state to transmit the Buddha-Dharma.

32.12

The Northern Di. In the Zhou there were the Shanrong and Xianyun. In the Qin and Han there were the Xiongnu. During the reigns of Emperors Huan and Ling there were the Xianbei. In the Later Wei there were the Rouran (Ruanruan), in the Western Wei the Tujue, and in the Tang the Uyghurs (Huihe); all these occupied the former territories of the Xiongnu. In the Tang, the Khitan resided between Song and Mo; by the Song dynasty they grew increasingly powerful and called themselves the Great Liao. Later there were the Jurchen, who called themselves the Great Jin, and the Tatars, who called themselves the Mongols. ○ The Western Qiang were a affliction during the Three Dynasties. By the Qin and Han they were driven beyond the river barriers. During the reign of Emperor Xuan of the Han, Zhao Chongguo defeated the Xianling and established the Jincheng Dependent State to settle the surrendered Qiang. In the Eastern Han they repeatedly caused trouble, and Duan Jiong crushed them. In the Wei and Jin they caused much disorder in Guanlong. After the Yongjia era there were the Tuyuhun. At the beginning of the Tang, Tibet (Tufan) annexed the Tuyuhun, Dangxiang, and various Qiang tribes, thereupon becoming a powerful empire. ○ The various countries of the Southern Seas: Funan, Dandan, Jiaozhi, Chenla, Kulam (Gulin), Tāzī (Dashi), Baghdad (Baida), Daqin, Rūm (Lumei), and Miṣr (Wusili) (from the Miscellaneous Records of Island Barbarians). Those that came to present tribute in the Song dynasty were Champā (Zhancheng), Śrīvijaya (Sanfoqi), Borneo (Boni), Java (Shepo), Cola (Zhulian), Danliumei, and Butuan (Puduan).

32.13

During the reign of Emperor Yang, many barbarian tribes of the Western Regions arrived at Zhangye to engage in trade with China. The Emperor ordered Pei Ju to oversee these affairs, who compiled the Illustrated Accounts of the Western Regions, stating: Starting from Dunhuang and reaching all the way to the Western Sea, there are three routes in total. The northern route goes from Yiwu via Lake Barkol (Pulei Sea), the Tiele tribes, the Tujue, and the court of the Qaghan (pronounced kehan, the title of the northern barbarian ruler), crosses the northern-flowing river, reaches the country of Fulin, and arrives at the Western Sea. The central route goes from Gaochang, Yanqi, Kucha (Qiuzi), and Kashgar (Shule), crosses the Pamir Mountains (Congling), and passes Ferghana (Bohan), Osrushana (Suleshana), Samarkand (Kangguo), Cao, He, Greater and Lesser Bukhara (Anguo), and Mu, reaching Persia and arriving at the Western Sea. The southern route goes from Shanshan, Khotan (Yutian), Zhujubo, and Tashkurgan (Qepanduo), crosses the Pamir Mountains, passes Wakhan (Humi), Tokharistan (Tuhuoluo), Yeda (Hephthalites), Bamiyan (Fanyan), and Jāguḍa (Zaoguo), reaching Northern India (Northern Brāhmaṇa), and arriving at the Western Sea. The various states along these three routes

32.14

also each have their own pathways for north-south transport. Thus one knows that Yiwu, Gaochang, and Shanshan are all gateways to the Western Regions, converging jointly at Dunhuang (and so forth). From this, the Emperor was resolutely set upon opening communication with the Western Regions, and ordered Pei Ju to proceed to Zhangye to summon and attract more than forty western barbarian countries (Biography of Pei Ju in the Book of Sui).

32.15

Gaochang was the royal court of the Anterior Jushi (which is Jiaohe). It has Mount Tanwu, which has accumulated snow even in summer; north of the mountain is the border of the Tiele. Looking from Dunhuang toward that country, there are mostly gravelly deserts, boundless and without paths; those wishing to travel there proceed by tracking the skeletons of humans and beasts. At times, one may hear singing or weeping, which are the doings of mountain sprites and demons. Traveling merchants and travelers mostly take the Yiwu route (Treatise on the Western Regions in the History of the Northern Dynasties).

32.16

The author remarks: In discussing the utmost limits of heaven and earth, none compares to the Buddhist scriptures. Their description of Mount Sumeru and the four continents makes our world seem like a single grain of millet in a great granary. As for Jambudvīpa, it is merely the southern continent among the four continents. The sūtras state that it is seven thousand yojanas in length and breadth, and its perimeter encompasses 280,000 li, calculated at forty li per yojana. Traveling west from Liaodong, exiting Yangguan, crossing the Pamir Mountains, passing through the Five Indias, and reaching the limits of the Western Sea; or traveling north from the Southern Sea, exiting Yanmen, crossing the extremes of the desert, and reaching the Northern Sea—both its breadth and length measure roughly ninety thousand li. Yet worldly people lack comprehensive understanding; the flourishing extent of the four borders during the Han dynasty did not exceed ten thousand li, and for this reason, upon hearing this explanation for the first time, none can believe it. One must realize that this land lies in the east, while Tianzhu lies in the center. From this land west to Tianzhu is forty-five thousand li; from Tianzhu west to the edge of the Western Sea is likewise forty-five thousand li. Thus, that this land is the eastern region of Jambudvīpa is indeed true! Secular Confucians call this land the 'Middle Kingdom', yet they merely base this on their own land to assert the center of the four directions. When Confucians discuss the earth, they only reach ten thousand li, and thus do not know the prosperity of the Five Indias or the boundless reaches of the Western Sea. When Daoists discuss heaven, they only reach the Three Realms of Purity, and thus do not know the loftiness and distance of the Six Heavens of Desire, the Four Dhyānas, and the Four Formless Realms, nor the infinity of the Formless Realm. How much less could they know of the tens of billions of Sumeru worlds in the great trichiliocosm? How much less could they know of the Lotus Treasury World, all-pervading and established like Indra's net? Therefore, in discussing the utmost limits of heaven and earth, unless one relies on the Buddhist scriptures, it is impossible to exhaust its profound truth.

32.17

At the center of Jambudvīpa is the lake named Anavatapta. It lies south of the Fragrant Mountains (Gandhamādana) and north of the Great Snow Mountains (Himālaya), with a circumference of eight hundred li. A bodhisattva of the tenth stage manifests as a dragon king and dwells secretly within it, sending forth pure and cool waters to supply Jambudvīpa. On the eastern side of the lake, from a silver ox's mouth flows the Gaṅgā River, which circles the lake once and enters the southeastern sea. On the southern side of the lake, from a golden elephant's mouth flows the Sindhu River, which circles the lake once and enters the southwestern sea. On the western side of the lake, from a lapis lazuli horse's mouth flows the Vakṣu River, which circles the lake once and enters the northwestern sea. On the northern side of the lake, from a crystal lion's mouth flows the Sītā River, which circles the lake once and enters the northeastern sea. Some say that it flows covertly underground and emerges from Mount Jishi to become the source of the Yellow River of the eastern land (the explanation of Jambudvīpa is seen earlier in the Diagram of the Four Continents and Nine Mountains. Anavatapta is translated here as 'Free from Heat and Affliction'; the lake is adorned with the four jewels, and its waters flow out from the mouths of the four beasts. Gaṅgā is translated here as 'Coming from Heaven', meaning that its origin is high. Sindhu is translated here as 'Verifying River'. Vakṣu is translated here as 'Blue River'. Sītā is translated here as 'Chanting River'. Jambudvīpa is also named Yanfuti). Nearest from Gaochang is the country of Agni (having ten-odd saṅghārāmas; the Book of Han calls it Yanqi). Nine hundred li to the southwest is Kucha (Kuji; with one hundred saṅghārāmas; formerly called Qiuzi). Six hundred li to the southwest is Bālukā (formerly called Gumo). Six hundred li to the northwest brings one to the Ice Mountains (Ling Shan), the northern heights of the Pamir Mountains; traveling four hundred li one reaches the Clear Lake (Issyk-Kul). Going north for five hundred li is the city of the Suyāb River (Suyab). Four hundred li to the west is the Thousand Springs (Mingt-bulak), fronting the snow mountains to the south and bordered by flat plains on three sides, where the Tujue come to escape the summer heat. Going west one reaches Taras (Daluosi); to the southwest is the White Water City (Isfijab); to the southwest is the city of Gongyu; to the south is Nūjkath; to the west is Chach (Shiguo); to the west is Osrushana; to the northwest is Samarkand (Kangguo); to the south one reaches Māymurgh (Miguo); to the north is Kapūtānā (Caoguo); to the west is Kushāniya (Heguo); to the west is Eastern Bukhara; to the west is Middle Bukhara; to the west one reaches Western Bukhara; to the southwest is Khwārazm (Huoli). ○ Southwest from Samarkand one reaches Kesh (Shiguo); going southeast one enters the Iron Gate; coming out south one reaches Tokharistan (which is the Tuhuoluo previously cited from the Book of Sui), flanking the Pamirs on the east, bordering Persia on the west, facing the snow mountains to the south, and controlling the Iron Gate to the north. ○ Following the Vakṣu River flowing north, one reaches Termez (Tami); to the east one reaches Chaghāniyān; further east one reaches Khulm; further east one reaches Yumān; southwest bordering the river one reaches Kuvadhiyān; further east one reaches Wakhsh; further east one reaches Khuttal; bordering the Pamirs on the east one reaches Kumedh; to the south one reaches Shighnān; crossing the river one reaches Darmāsthit. ○ Southeast from Kunduz (Huoguo) one reaches Khost; to the west is Baghlān; to the south is Andarāb; to the southwest is Khulm; to the east is Balkh (Bahu), bordering the river on the north, with one hundred saṅghārāmas, which people call the 'Little Rājagṛha'.

32.18

city. From here, one enters the Snow Mountains to the southwest, reaching Rui-mo-tuo [Ruimatuo]. To the southwest, one reaches […]. From Bākhī [Balkh], heading south, one reaches Ghaznī. Entering the Great Snow Mountains to the southeast, one reaches Bāmiyān (where there is a thousand-foot reclining Buddha, and the nine-strip caul-born robe of Śāṇavāsa still exists). Crossing the Black Range to the east, one reaches Kapiśā (facing the Snow Mountains to the north, with one hundred saṅghārāmas). Entering the territory of Northern India to the east, one reaches Lampāka. Eastward, one reaches Gandhāra (there is a great stūpa five hundred feet high; Empress Dowager Hu of the Northern Wei sent envoys carrying a five-hundred-foot banner to hang upon it, yet its hem barely reached the ground). Southward, one reaches Nagarahāra (the territory of Northern India). Northward, one reaches Uḍḍiyāna (where the Śākya clan, having been banished, ruled; it is said to have been an ancient Cakravartin's garden, and monks always number ten thousand). Eastward, one reaches Bolor (amid the Great Snow Mountains). Crossing the Sindhu River to the south, one reaches Takṣaśilā. Southeastward, one reaches Siṃhapura. Southeastward, one reaches Uraśā. Southeastward, one reaches Kaśmīra (formerly called Jibin; it has one hundred saṅghārāmas). Southeastward, one reaches Punacha. Southward, one reaches Ṭakka. Eastward, one reaches Jālandhara. Northeastward, one reaches Cīnabhukti. Northeastward, one reaches Kulūta. Northward, one reaches Lahul. Further north, one reaches Ladak. From Kulūta, heading south, one reaches Śatadru (all the above belong to Northern India). Southwestward, one reaches Pāryātra (from here begins the territory of Central India). Eastward, one reaches Mathurā (the place where Upagupta delivered people, filling the stone chamber with tallies). Northeastward, one reaches Sthāneśvara. Northeastward, one reaches Śrughna (bordering the Gaṅgā River to the east). Crossing the river to the east, one reaches Matipura. Northward, one reaches Brahmapura (this belongs to Northern India). In the northern Snow Mountains is the country of Suvarṇagotra (where a woman is king; her husband is also titled king, but does not manage affairs of state; this country borders Tibet to the east, Khotan to the north, and Malva to the west). From Matipura, heading east, one reaches Govisanna. Southeastward, one reaches Ahicchatra (where the Buddha preached the Dharma for seven days for the Nāga King Mucilinda). Crossing the Gaṅgā River to the south, one reaches Viraśāna. Southeastward, one reaches Kapiṭha (where the Buddha preached the Dharma to his mother in the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, and Śakra Devānām Indra offered a three-flight jeweled staircase). Northwestward, one reaches Kānyakubja. Crossing the Gaṅgā River to the southeast, one reaches Ayodhyā. Eastward, one reaches Ayamukha. Southeastward, one reaches Prayāga. Southwestward, one reaches Kauśāmbī. Northward, one reaches Viśākhā. Northeastward, one reaches the country of Śrāvastī (five li south of the city is Anāthapiṇḍada's park). Southeastward, one reaches Kapilavastu (the place of the Buddha's birth; the palace of King Śuddhodana, the palace of Queen Māyā, and the place of the Bodhisattva's descent into the womb all have vihāras established; when the Buddha returned to his native country, he stayed at the Nyagrodha Monastery, received his aunt's gold-threaded kāṣāya, and delivered the eight princes and five hundred Śākya clansmen). Northeastward, one reaches Kuśinagara (the Śāla Grove, the place of the Buddha's parinirvāṇa). Southwestward, one reaches Vārāṇasī (the Deer Park, the place of turning the wheel of the Dharma; near the Deer Park is the Cīna Monastery, built by the king for the monks of the Great Tang; Cīna here means the Great Tang). Following the Gaṅgā River northeastward, one reaches Vaiśālī (formerly called Bisheli; there is the square-room cell of Vimalakīrti). Northeastward, one reaches Vṛji (the territory of Northern India). Northwestward, one reaches Nepāla (the northern border of this country is the Eastern Women's Country, adjoining Tibet; people and state emissaries traveling back and forth usually pass through this land; Tang and India are ten thousand li apart, and from antiquity routes were circuitous, resulting in great remoteness and hindrance). From Vaiśālī, crossing the Gaṅgā River to the south, one reaches Magadha (also called Magadha; the territory of Central India; Rājagṛha is within this country, and Pāṭaliputra is on the south bank of the river; crossing the Nairañjanā River to the southwest is Gayā City; six li west of the city is Mount Gayā, commonly called Ling Shan; to the southwest is the Bodhi Tree, the place of the Buddha's attainment of the way; the tree is fifty feet high, enclosed by a wall of five hundred paces, with the diamond seat inside, upon which a thousand Buddhas sit and enter the diamond samādhi; the Kukkuṭārāma Monastery, established by King Aśoka, constantly provides for a thousand monks; Nālandā Monastery, jointly built by five kings, houses several thousand monks, all of outstanding talent and profound scholarship). Eastward, one reaches Campā. Eastward, one reaches Kājñṅgala. Crossing the Gaṅgā River to the east, one reaches Puṇḍravardhana (all the above belong to Central India). Eastward, one reaches Kāmarūpa (this country has passed through a thousand generations, yet to this day does not believe in the Buddha's Dharma; the eastern border of the country is contiguous with hills and mounds, and in about two months of travel one enters the southwestern border of Shu). Southward, one reaches Samataṭa (Eastern India). Northeastward, on the shore of the great sea, one reaches Śrīkṣetra. Southeastward, in a corner of the great sea, one reaches Kamalāṅkā. Eastward, one reaches Dvāravatī. Further east, one reaches Īśānapura. Further east, one reaches Mahācampā (namely Linyi of this land). Further southwest, one reaches Yamunadvīpa (these six countries have blocked routes and cannot be reached). From Samataṭa, heading west, one reaches Tāmralipti (the eastern border borders the sea; the climate is warm). Northwestward, one reaches Karṇasuvarṇa. Southwestward, one reaches Oḍra (bordering the great sea to the southeast, there is a city which is a stopping place for maritime merchants; southward, it is twenty thousand li to Siṃhala; on a clear night, looking towards that country, the gem light of the Buddha-tooth stūpa shines like a great torch). Southwestward, one reaches Koṅgoda (the above belong to Eastern India; bordering the sea; they do not believe in the Buddha's Dharma). Southwestward, one reaches Kaliṅga (Southern India). Northwestward, one reaches Kosala (in Central India; the king was named Sadvaha, who built a monastery for Nāgārjuna and gathered a thousand monks, spending nine hundred million gold coins on the salt provisions alone consumed by the laborers). Southward, one reaches Andhra (from here down is Southern India). Southward, one reaches Dhānyakaṭaka. Southwestward, one reaches Cola. Southward, one reaches Drāviḍa. Southward, one reaches Malakūṭa (its southern border meets the sea, and there is Mount Malaya; to the east of this mountain is Mount Potalaka, on whose summit is a lake, and beside the lake is a stone heavenly palace where Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva wanders and resides; those wishing to see him wade through water and climb the mountain). Southeastward, one reaches Siṃhala (this is not within India; there is a Buddha Tooth Vihāra, atop which a pillar is erected holding a large gem like the morning star; beside the royal palace a large kitchen is built, daily preparing food for eighteen thousand monks; at mealtime they bring their bowls to receive food, each returning to his dwelling; ever since Buddhism was introduced, they have maintained this offering). From Drāviḍa, heading north, one reaches Koṅkaṇapura (the territory of Southern India; there are talipot palm groves, whose leaves are broad and long, and are used by all countries for copying scriptures). Northwestward, one reaches Mahārāṣṭra. Westward, one reaches Bharukaccha (where they work the sea to boil salt). Northwestward, one reaches Mālava (in the five Indias, two countries esteem learning: Mālava in the southwest and Magadha in the northeast; eminent monks flourish greatly; this country reaches the sea to the south). Northwestward, one reaches Aṭali. From Mālava, heading northwest, one reaches Kheda. Northward, one reaches Valabhī (the above belong to Southern India). Northwestward, one reaches Anandapura (from here begins Western India). From Valabhī, heading north, one reaches Gurjara (Western India). Southeastward, one reaches Ujjayanī (Southern India). Northeastward, one reaches Jajhoti (Southern India). Northward, one reaches Maheśvarapura (Central India). From Gurjara, crossing the Sindhu River to the north, one reaches the country of Sindhu (Western India). Crossing to the east bank of the river to the east, one reaches Mūlasthānapura (Western India). Northeastward, one reaches Parvata (Northern India). From the country of Sindhu, heading southwest, one reaches Armābila (Western India, adjacent to the great sea). Westward, one reaches Lāṅgala (Western India, on the shore of the great sea). Northwestward, one reaches Persia (Northern India territory). Northwestward, one reaches Fulin (Fulin of the Sui History). Southwestward, on an island in the sea, is the Western Women's Country (entirely of women; Fulin annually sends men, and if a male is born, he is not raised). From Armābila, heading north, one reaches Pi-to-shi-lo [Pitasila] (Western India). Northeastward, one reaches A-tu [Avanda] (Western India). Northeastward, one reaches Varana (Western India, subordinate to Kapiśā). Westward, one reaches Jaguda. Northwestward, leaving the territory of India, one reaches Jāguḍa. Northward, one reaches Vṛjisthāna. Northeastward, one reaches the great ridge of Xina in the Great Snow Mountains; among the mountains of Jambudvīpa, this ridge is extraordinarily lofty. Descending the ridge, one reaches Andarāb (subordinate to the Turks). Northwestward, one reaches Khulm (subordinate to the Turks). Northwestward, one reaches Qunduz (subordinate to the Turks, overseeing the various small countries south of the Iron Gate). From here, entering the Pamir Mountains (Congling) to the east: this range stands in the center of Jambudvīpa, adjoining the Great Snow Mountains to the south, reaching the Warm Sea and the Thousand Springs to the north, Qunduz to the west, and Wusha to the east; in each of the four directions it spans several thousand li, with hundreds of tiers of cliffs and ridges, perpetual snow and freezing winds, yet the hills and mounds are lush green (cong), hence its name. Eastward, one reaches Mungān (subordinate to the Turks). Northward, one reaches Ragh. Eastward, one reaches Badakhshān. From Mungān, heading east, one reaches Kṛṣṇa. Northeastward, one reaches Pārhār. From Kṛṣṇa, heading east, one reaches Himatala. Westward, one reaches Baghlān. Southeastward, one reaches Inbogan. Southeastward, one reaches Kurān. Northeastward, one reaches Teti. Northward, one reaches Śikhnān. Crossing the Great Mountain of Teti, southward one reaches Shambhī. Northeastward, one reaches the Pamir Valley (a thousand li from east to west). Southward, one reaches Bolor. From the valley, ascending the mountains, one reaches Tashkurghan. Descending the eastern slopes of the Pamir Mountains, one reaches Wusha. Northwestward, one reaches Kashgar (formerly named Shule). Southeastward, one reaches Yarkand (where scriptures and teachings flourish greatly). Eastward, one reaches Khotan. Eastward, entering the sand and gravel, one reaches Niya City, which is the pass of the eastern border. Further east, one enters the Great Drifting Sands; the sands gather and scatter with the wind, and many people lose their way, so travelers gather discarded skeletons to mark the route. Eastward, one reaches Qiemo. Northeastward, one reaches the ancient land of Loulan (namely the kingdom of Shanshan). India (Yindu) is the correct name for Tianzhu (here meaning 'moon'). Backed by the Snow Mountains to the north, it is bordered by the great sea on three sides. The terrain is narrow in the south like a crescent moon, and its plains and lands are expansive, with a circumference of ninety thousand li. Over seven thousand cities reside therein, extending to the borders of the three seas under a single sovereign rule (Great Tang Records on the Western Regions by the Tripiṭaka Master Xuanzang).

32.19

The Golden Light Sūtra states: 'Eighty-four thousand cities, hamlets, and settlements.' The Benevolent Kings Sūtra states: 'Sixteen great countries, five hundred middle countries, and one hundred thousand small countries.' The Śūraṅgama Sūtra states: 'In this Jambudvīpa, there are two thousand three hundred great countries.'

32.20

The Lou tan jing states: 'East of the Onion River is named Cīnasthāna.' Dharma Master Yanzong of the Tang stated: 'West of the Pamir Mountains (Congling), all belong to the Brahmic race; to the left of the Iron Gate, all are called Hu lands.' (Some refer to the Five Indias as Hu countries, Brahmic scriptures as Hu sūtras, and Brahmic monks as Hu monks; these are all grave errors.) Tripiṭaka Master Yijing of the Tang boarded a ship from Panyu (pronounced Pan-yu; present-day Guangzhou) in the second year of Xianheng [671 CE], heading west to Holing [Java], next to Śrīvijaya, next to Malayu, and next to Kedah. Traveling north for ten days, he reached the Naked People (in the southwest of Shu; both men and women go naked). Traveling northwest for half a month, he reached Tāmralipti (the harbor on the border of Eastern India, where one embarks on ships to return to the Tang). Directly west, he reached the country of Mahābodhi (namely Magadha). Nālandā Monastery is seventy relay stations away (another source says that Tāmralipti is ten days from Mahābodhi). At Nālandā, he paid homage to the fundamental stūpa; on Gṛdhrakūṭa Mountain, he viewed the place where the robes were folded; and at the Mahābodhi Temple, he paid homage to the true image (namely the place of the diamond seat at the bodhimaṇḍa).

32.21

At the square-room cell in Kuśinagara, the Deer Park, and Mount Kukkuṭapāda, he paid homage everywhere to the sacred traces. He stayed at Nālandā for ten years, seeking scriptures, and returned to Tāmralipti. Boarding a ship, he passed through Kedah and sent the Sanskrit manuscripts to Śrīvijaya, composing the Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea and the Biographies of Eminent Monks Who Sought the Dharma. In the autumn of the first year of Yongchang [689 CE], he returned to Guangfu. By winter, he again boarded a ship to Śrīvijaya, staying for three years. In the first year of Zhengsheng [695 CE], he returned to the eastern capital of Luoyang to translate scriptures.

32.22

The commentary says: The continent of Jambudvīpa, in the west, is the Five Indias. It is the realm ruled by the flying Wheel-turning Kings; this is the lineage of Brahmā. In the east is Cīnasthāna, transformed by august sovereigns, King Wen, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius; this is the country of noble persons (junzi). In the north are the Di tribes, the homeland of the Xianyun, Xiongnu, and Hu barbarians. The bounded domains are distinctly separated; one must not refer to the Brahmans as Hu and thereby create confusion. Old expressions like 'Hu kneeling' (kneeling on one knee), 'Hu scriptures', 'Hu-Han', and 'old Hu' are all unfounded talk and unworthy of use. Where the sūtras mention varying numbers of kingdoms and cities, it is because partition and unification have differed across past and present. Just as in this land there were eighteen hundred states under the Zhou, over seventy in the Spring and Autumn period, seven under the Qin, three under the Wei, and sixteen under the Jin—sometimes partitioned, sometimes united, the states were not one, yet in summary they never went beyond this single realm. Moreover, as for the differences between Chinese and Sanskrit across various sūtras: Kumārajīva translated 'Hénghé' (Gaṅgā) while Master Xuanzang wrote 'Jìngjiā'; Kumārajīva wrote 'Xūmí' (Sumeru) while Xuanzang wrote 'Sūmílú'. People commonly point to Kumārajīva's translations as erroneous, but this assertion cannot be considered definitive. This is because the local pronunciations queried by the Dharma-seeking monks differed between central and peripheral regions, and there were changes over time, yet what they signify in reality is one and the same. Just as in this land names of places and things shift in pronunciation between north and south and their expressions vary; and just as this land is identical as Cīnasthāna, yet its designations differed across the Zhou, Qin, Han, and Jin—how could one fix what is right and wrong between past and present? If one can comprehend this meaning, then the differences between Chinese and Sanskrit can naturally be understood in one's mind.

32.23

The *New Vibhāṣā Śāstra* states: From the southern continent down to Avīci is forty thousand yojanas in total. It is pointed at the top and broad at the bottom, like a heap of grain. The *Sarvāstivāda Śāstra* states: Beneath the southern continent are five hundred yojanas of earth and mud, and five hundred yojanas of white clay. The seven hells from Sañjīva to Pratāpana are altogether nineteen thousand yojanas in height, each ten thousand yojanas in breadth. Avīci is twenty thousand yojanas in height and breadth. The *Abhidharma Śāstra* states: The lifespan in Sañjīva is five hundred years; in Kālasūtra, one thousand years; in Saṃghāta, two thousand years; in Raurava, four thousand years; in Mahāraurava, eight thousand years; in Tapana, sixteen thousand years; in Pratāpana, half a kalpa; in Avīci, one kalpa. The *Abhidharmakośa Śāstra* states: One day and night in Sañjīva equals five hundred years of the Cāturmahārājakāyika heaven, and so on sequentially until Tapana, where one day and night equals sixteen thousand years of the Paranirmitavaśavartin heaven (the remaining hells correspond sequentially by analogy). The *Tattvasiddhi Śāstra* states: The five kinds of 'uninterrupted' (Avīci) are: first, uninterrupted fruition of the destiny, because one is reborn there immediately upon relinquishing the body; second, uninterrupted suffering, because there is no pleasure in between; third, uninterrupted time, because it is fixed at one kalpa; fourth, uninterrupted life, because it is not severed midway; fifth, uninterrupted form, for this hell is eighty thousand yojanas in length and breadth, yet it is full with a single person and equally full with many persons (*Sarvāstivāda Śāstra* says twenty thousand yojanas).

32.24

Diagram of the Eight Hot Hells

32.25

The *New Vibhāṣā Śāstra* states: Each of the eight hot hells has four gates. Outside each gate are four additional excursions (utsada), so called because the suffering of sentient beings increases as they wander into them. The bodies of sentient beings in hell resemble humans. The *Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna Sūtra* states: The suffering of Avīci is a thousand times greater than that of the previous seven great hells.

32.26

The Four Gates and Sixteen Additional Excursions

32.27

┌────────────────────────────────────────┐│ Diagram of the Eight Cold Hells │├────────────────────────────────────────┤│ 1. Arbuda 2. Nirarbuda 3. Aṭaṭa 4. Hahava││ ││ 5. Huhuva 6. Utpala 7. Padma 8. Puṇḍarīka│└────────────────────────────────────────┘

32.28

These eight hells are located at the bottom of Mount Cakravāḍa. The denizens dwell facing upward, enduring the suffering of freezing cold (*Tridharmaka Śāstra*). The lifespan in Arbuda is illustrated by the bushel measure of Kosala: a capacity of twenty bushels of sesame seeds. If a man removes one sesame seed every hundred years until they are completely exhausted, then twenty such Arbuda lifespans equal one Nirarbuda lifespan. The remaining hells follow this analogy sequentially (*Lokotpattihetu Sūtra*). 'Niraya' translates as 'improper way' (apatha), being the lowest and basest realm in the kāmadhātu (*Abhidharma Śāstra*). 'Naraka' translates as 'evil person' (*New Vibhāṣā Śāstra*). The good and evil done by a person follows the person like a shadow follows the body. When a person dies, only their body perishes, but their actions do not perish. For example, if one lights a lamp to write at night, when the fire is extinguished the characters remain, and when the fire returns they are completed again. One performs actions in the present life, and they come to fruition in a future life (*Milindapañha*).

32.29

There are three kinds of hells: first, hot; second, cold; third, peripheral. The hot hells are eight: First is called Sañjīva (Reviving). Iron claws grow on the hands of the sinners, and they claw each other until their flesh falls off. Or the hell wardens call out 'Live!', or a cold wind blows to revive them. Although the two conditions differ, they revive equally. Having endured this suffering, the person proceeds to the Hell of Black Sand and up to the Hell of Boiling Excrement, and sequentially to the Hell of Cold Ice, after which their life ends. One falls into this hell due to having committed unwholesome karma of body, speech, and mind. Each great hell has sixteen small hells surrounding it (namely the sixteen additional excursions in the *Vibhāṣā Śāstra*). Second is called Kālasūtra (Black Rope). Iron cords are heated to measure and mark their limbs, after which they are hacked and sawn. Having endured suffering for a long time, they proceed to the Hell of Black Sand and up to the Hell of Cold Ice, after which their life ends. The suffering endured is heavier by comparison with the former. One falls into this hell due to ill intent toward parents and śrāvakas. Third is called Saṃghāta (Crushing). Numerous implements of suffering, blazing fiercely hot, converge to torment them (the remaining sense follows the former). One falls into this hell due to committing the three evil karmas. Fourth is called Raurava (Crying). The hell wardens seize the sinners and cast them into iron caldrons, where they boil and wail. One falls into this hell due to cherishing anger and malice. Fifth is called Mahāraurava (Great Crying). Placed in iron caldrons, they wail and shriek loudly. One falls into this hell due to practicing wrong views and evil deeds. Sixth is called Tapana (Heating). Placed in an iron city, they are scorched and rotten with blazing fire. One falls into this hell due to burning and roasting sentient beings. [Seventh is called Pratāpana (Great Heating).] Eighth is called Avīci (Uninterrupted; Sanskrit *Abhī* or *Avī*). The hell wardens seize the sinners, strip their skins, wrap their bodies, and place them upon fiery carts. Ten thousand afflictions arrive simultaneously, and there is no moment without suffering. One falls into this hell due to extremely heavy sins (the ten unwholesome deeds and five heinous transgressions. The above draws from the text of the *Dīrghāgama*). These eight hells are situated beneath Jambudvīpa, stacked one upon another, where denizens endure burning torment. The first two have overseers; the next three have few overseers; the last three have no overseers. Second, the cold hells are eight: First is called Arbuda (Blister). Pressed by the bitter cold, tiny blisters form on the flesh. Second is called Nirarbuda (Bursting Blister). Blown by freezing wind, the entire body blisters. These two receive their names from bodily signs. Third is called Aṭaṭa. Unable to move the lips, the tongue makes this sound. Fourth is called Hahava. Unable to move the tongue, the lips make this sound. Fifth is called Huhuva. The breath trembles within the throat to make this sound. These three receive their names from sounds. Sixth is called Utpala (Blue Lotus). The flesh cracks into fine fissures like this flower. Seventh is called Padma (Red Lotus). The flesh cracks into large fissures like this flower opening. Eighth is called Puṇḍarīka (White Lotus). Their bones split open like this flower blooming. These three receive their names from the appearance of the sores. These eight hells are at the base of Mount Cakravāḍa, where denizens dwell facing upward, suffering freezing cold. Third, the peripheral hells are three: among mountains, amid waters, and in wildernesses, where they endure separate karmic retribution. These should be a mixture of cold and heat (*Tridharmaka Śāstra*; the character *fu* [caldon] has the fanqie pronunciation *fang-you*, meaning a large cauldron).

32.30

To the south of Jambudvīpa, outside the two Cakravāḍa ranges, lies the palace of King Yama. It is exactly six thousand yojanas square. There are seven tiers of balustrades, seven rows of trees, gardens, ponds, and all kinds of luscious fruits; fragrant breezes scent the air from afar, and various birds sing in harmony. Owing to his former unwholesome karma, throughout the six periods of day and night red molten copper juice naturally wells up before him. The palace immediately turns to iron. The hell wardens seize the king, throw him onto the burning iron ground, and pour the copper juice into his mouth. At that time, terrified, the king forms the thought: 'May I abandon this body and be reborn among humans, take right faith in the Tathāgata's Dharma, and go forth from the household life!' When he generates this wholesome thought, the palace turns back into the seven treasures, complete with the five desires (*Lokotpatti Sūtra*).

32.31

In the past, King Yama was the king of Vaiśālī. He engaged in battle against King Vedasi-saṃbhava, but his military forces were no match. He then made a vow wishing to become the lord of the hells. His eighteen ministers and generals led a million troops, and together they made a vow, saying: 'In the future we will assist in punishing these sinners.' The king of Vaiśālī is the present King Yama; the eighteen ministers are the present minor kings; the million troops are the various ox-head wardens (*apāṅga*; the *Sūtra on Inquiring into Hells* says that *apāṅga* translates here as 'uninterrupted'). *Yamalarāja* here translates as 'Twin Kings': the elder brother rules the male hells, and the younger sister rules the female hells (*Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna Sūtra*). Because brother and sister both serve as hell rulers, they are called 'Twin Kings'; moreover, it is because they endure both suffering and pleasure (*Pronunciation and Meaning of the Scriptures*).

32.32

The Avīci Hell is eight thousand yojanas in length and breadth. It has seven tiers of iron walls and seven tiers of iron nets. It contains eighteen cauldrons (*li*; pronounced *li-di*, a type of tripod kettle). Encircling them in seven tiers are forests of sword trees. There are four great bronze hounds, eighteen hell wardens with eight heads, sixty-four horns, and sixty-four eyes, and seven iron banners from which fire wells up like boiling water. When an evil transgressor approaches the end of life, the bronze hounds transform into eighteen carriages resembling canopies, and all the flames transform into jade maidens. Seeing them from afar, the sinner rejoices and wishes to approach. As wind knives dismember their body, they shiver with piercing cold and cry out, 'If only I could get good fire and be placed upon that carriage!' Thereupon fire blazes up; when the sinner dies, they are reborn on the fiery carriage, and in the space of bending or stretching an arm, they plunge straight into Avīci. Falling from the upper cauldrons like a whirling wheel of fire down to the lower cauldrons, King Yama's manifestation proclaims in a loud voice: 'Foolish person, seed of hell! When in the world, you were unfilial to your parents and followed wrong views without morality. The place you are now born in is called the Avīci Hell.' Such great suffering lasts for one day and night, which equals sixty small kalpas in the human world. Such is the lifespan, lasting an entire great kalpa. Those who have committed all five heinous transgressions suffer punishment for five kalpas. Furthermore, there are sentient beings who violate the four grave prohibitions, vainly consume offerings made in faith, harbor slanderous wrong views without recognizing cause and effect, sever their study of prajñā, disparage the Buddhas of the ten directions, steal property of the Saṃgha, and indulge in depraved and unprincipled lust. The karmic retribution of such persons lasts for eighty-four thousand great kalpas; then they re-enter the eighteen cauldrons of the east to endure suffering as before, and likewise in the south, west, and north. 'Avīci' thus means 'beyond relief' (*Sūtra on the Ocean of Samādhi Contemplation of the Buddha*; note: 'bī' is pronounced 'pí'. The *Jñānolkā Sūtra* says that the *Apí* hell is destroyed in an instant, from which one should know that the pronunciation *pí* is without doubt. The *Śūraṅgama Sūtra* mentions both *Ābī* and *Wújiàn* [Avīci]; since *Ābī* here explains itself as 'beyond relief', one should know that the great Ābī hell is distinct from the Uninterrupted Hell).

32.33

Comprehensive Record of the Buddhas and Patriarchs, Volume 32 (End)

32.34

In the time of Emperor Xiaowu, communications were first opened with the Western Regions. The thirty-six kingdoms all lay west of the Xiongnu and south of the Wusun. In the northwest there are great mountains, and in the center there is a river. From east to west it extends over six thousand li, and from south to north over one thousand li. To the east it connects with the Han chokepoints, bounded by Yumen and Yangguan (both passes lie on the western border of Dunhuang); to the west it is bounded by the Congling (the mountains are lush and verdant, and are also said to have many onions, hence the name). Its Southern Mountains emerge eastward from Jincheng, connecting with the Southern Mountains of the Han (read *zhu*, meaning continuous). The river has two sources: one emerges from the Congling, and one from Yutian (read *tian*); Yutian lies beneath the Southern Mountains. Its river flows north to merge with the Congling River, emptying east into the Puchang Sea (also called the Salt Marsh). It is three hundred li from Yumen and Yangguan, and is three hundred li in breadth and length. Its waters neither increase nor decrease in winter or summer; all believe that it flows secretly underground, emerging south at Jishi as the source of the Yellow River for China. From Yumen and Yangguan leading into the Western Regions there are two routes. The one running from Shanshan alongside the Southern Mountains, following the river westward along its north to Shache, is the Southern Route. Crossing the Congling westward, the Southern Route leads to the Da Yuezhi and Anxi. The one starting from the court of the anterior king of Jushi, following the Northern Mountains, and proceeding westward along the river to Shule, is the Northern Route. Crossing the Congling westward, the Northern Route leads to Dayuan, Kangju, and Yancai. The various kingdoms of the Western Regions have walled cities, fields, and livestock, differing in customs from the Xiongnu and Wusun. All were subject to the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu Rizhu King of the western frontier installed a commandant to govern the Western Regions. Later, the General of Agile Cavalry defeated the old lands of the Xiongnu and received the surrender of the Hunxie and Xiutu Kings (the character *piao* is read *pin-miao*; *kun* is read *hun*; *tu* is read *chu*; they were two kings of the Xiongnu). He first built fortifications west of Lingju (read *ling*), and initially established Jiuquan Commandery (its water has a sweet taste). Later, Wuwei, Zhangye, and Dunhuang (read *tun*) were gradually partitioned and established. Arranging the four commanderies, they occupied the two passes. From the time the General of Ershi (Li Guangli) attacked Dayuan and obtained heavenly horses, the Western Regions were struck with awe and dread, sending many envoys with tribute. In the court of Emperor Xuan, the Rizhu King came to surrender. Thereupon the envoy Zheng Ji was ordered to supervise both routes concurrently, titled Protector-General, governing from the city of Wulei. It is two thousand seven hundred li from Yangguan, situated in the center of the Western Regions (from the 'Record of the Western Regions' in the *History of the Western Han*).

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佛祖統紀 — 志磐, Classical Chinese