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India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi c7.s4: Section 4. Janapadas

India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī c7.s4

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Section 4. Janapadas

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An important geographical term used by Pāṇini is *Janapada*, which was both a state and a cultural unit, its culture counting more than its geography. Its cultural integrity was reflected and preserved in the manners, customs and above all the dialect of its people. The citizens of the same (*samāna*) *janapada* were called *sajanapadāḥ* (VI.3.85). The *janapadas* known to Pāṇini are the following:—

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1. Kamboja (IV.1.175). Gandhāra, Kapiśa, Bālhīka, and Kamboja are the four *janapadas* the relative positions of which should be clearly understood. Of these Gandhāra extended from Takshaśilā, its eastern capital, to the river Kunar, its western boundary, and from the river Kābul in the south to Swat in the north. Next to it was the kingdom of Kapiśa coinciding with modern Kafiristan and occupying the whole area between the river Kunar and the Hindukush. The latter mountain identified as Rohitāgiri separated Kapiśa from Bālhīka. Sometimes Kapiśa politically formed part of Gandhāra, as in the reign of Darius, and then the name Gandhāra was applied to both of them. In none of these three *janapadas* can Kamboja be included. It stands as a separate *janapada*, which Lassen correctly identified with the head-waters of the Oxus comprising the Ghalcha-speaking areas of Pamir.

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This identification is also supported by important linguistic evidence, *viz.* that the root *śava* 'to go' which was noticed by Yāska as a peculiarity of Kamboja speech (*Śavatir-gatikarmā Kambojeshveva bhāshyate*, Nirukta, II.2), is still current there. (Cf. Grierson, *Linguistic Survey of India*, Vol. X, pp. 468, 473, 474, 476, 500, etc; Jayachandra, *Bhārata-Bhūmi*, pp. 297-303). The Kambojas are known as Kambujiya in the Old-Persian Inscriptions. In the *Aitareya Brāh-maṇa* the Uttarakurus and the Uttaramadras are described as living beyond the Himālaya (VIII.14); and in the *Vaṁśa Brāhmaṇa* Kāmboja Aupamanyava is spoken of as a pupil of Madragāra, from which the *Vedic Index* postulates a possible connection of the Uttaramadras with the Kambojas, who probably had Iranian as well as Indian affinities, (*Vedic Index*, I.84, 138 cf. also Jean Przyluski, An Ancient People of the Punjab: The Udumbaras, *Journal Asiatique*, 1926, p.11 showing that Bālhīka was an Iranian settlement of the Madras; Bālhīka-Uttaramadra).

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² *Prakaṇva.* The name is a corollary to Praskaṇva in *sūtra* VI.1.153 and is stated by the *Kāśikā* to have been a country (*deśa*). It should be identified with the people mentioned by Herodotus as Parikanioi, (modern Ferghāna, Sten Konow, *Kharoshṭhī Ins.*, p. xviii) who are said to have formed part of the empire of Darius. Prakaṇva was thus situated immediately to the north of Kamboja or the Pamir region.

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³ *Gandhāra.* Pāṇini mentions both the Vedic form Gāndhāri as the name of the *janapada* and its people in *sūtra* IV.1.169, and its later form Gandhāra in the *gaṇas* to IV.2.133 and IV.3.93. Gandhāra extended from the Kābul Valley to Takshaśilā. Two towns of Gandhāra are mentioned, *viz.* Takshaśilā, its eastern capital, and Pushkalāvatī, the western. The latter occurs in a *gaṇa* as the name of a river on which the town stood. The Greeks refer to it as Peucelaotes (modern Charsadda, situated near the junction of the Swat with the Kābul). The Pushkalas of the *Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa* must be the people of this region. The country between the rivers Suvāstu and Gaurī was known as Uḍḍiyāna which Kātyāyana mentions as Aurḍāyana (*Bhāshya*, IV.2.99; II.292). It was considered in ancient days a part of Gandhāra. A special variety of blankets known as *pāṇḍu-kambala* (IV.2.11) was a product of Gandhāra. Gandhāra is also known to the *Atharvaveda* for its wool.

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4. *Sindhu*. Sindhu was originally the name of the river, which gave its name to the whole country. The term Sindhu was corrupted to Hi(n)du in the Old Persian inscriptions of Darius I (516-485 B.C.) and to Indus by the Ionian (=Pāṇini's Yavana) Greeks. Sindhu as a *janapada* may be identified with Sind-Sāgar Doāb, the region between the Jhelum and the Indus. Most of it is now the sandy desert of Thal.

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5. *Sauvīra* (IV.1.148). Pāṇini mentions Sauvīra and gives valuable social history of the region. It was the home of many *gotras* of which he names two, Phāṇṭāhṛiti and Mimata, and the *Kāśikā* following an old tradition adds Bhāgavitti, Tārṇabindava, Ākaśāpeya, Yamunda and Suyāmā. Bhāgavitti is also mentioned by Patañjali (II.243) and may be identified with the present Bugti tribe on the northern border of Sind, numbering about thirty thousand. Pāṇini mentions Śarkarā or Śārkara (modern Sukkur on the Indus) as a town (IV.2.83) The name was suggested by its proximity to the rocky region (*śarkarāyāḥ adūrabhavaḥ*) on the borders of which Sukkur is situated.

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Pāli literature mentions Rauruka (modern Rori in Upper Sind) as the capital of Sauvīra.

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6. *Brāhmaṇaka*. It is mentioned in Pāṇini's *sūtra* V.2.71. Patañjali definitely calls it a *janapada* (*Brāhmaṇako nāma janapadaḥ*, II.298). The significance of its name is brought out by the *Kāśikā*, which describes it as the land of Brahmins who were *āyudhajīvins* or followers of military art, (*yatrāyudhajīvino Brāhmaṇāḥ santi*). Their military traditions continued up to the time of Alexandar whose invasion they resisted with patriotic heroism (Plutarch, *Alex.*, 59). The Greeks call them *Brachmanoi* and locate them in middle Sind (*Arrian*, VI.16), of which the capital is still called Brahmanabad (Cunningham, *Ancient Geog.*, p. 310).

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It may be noted that even Rājaśekhara (9th century A.D.) names Brāhmaṇavaha ('abode of Brāhmaṇas') as one of the *janapadas* of the west. The Muslim geographers called Brahmanabad as Bahmanwā after this old tradition.

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It may be noted that Patañjali mentions two formations *a-Brāhmaṇaka* and *a-Vṛishalaka* as names of countries (I.301), corresponding to Śaudrāyaṇa and Brāhmaṇaka respectively.

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Śaudrāyaṇa or the Śūdra country is mentioned along with other names in the *gaṇa* Aishukāri (IV.2.54) which denoted names of countries after their peoples (*Vishayo deśe*). Like the Brāhmaṇas, the Śaudrāyaṇas (=Greek *Sodrae*) also are mentioned as having opposed Alexandar. Cunningham treats the present Soḍā Rajputs of south-east Sind around Umarkot as their descendants (*Ancient Geog.*, p. 291). Diodorus couples the *Sodrae* with the *Massanae* as occupying the opposite banks of the Indus. Cunningham equates the *Massanae* with the *Mausarnaioi* of Ptolemy, which name corresponds to the Masūrakarṇa (derivative Mausurakarṇa) of the *Gaṇa-pāṭha* (II.4.49; IV.1.112).

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7. *Apakara*. This name is mentioned along with Sindhu in *sūtra* IV.3.32, to explain the forms Apakaraka and Āpakara, denoting its products. It may be identified with Bhakkhar on the Indus in Mianwali district.

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8. *Pāraskara* (VI.1.157). This is mentioned in the *gaṇa* Pāraskara-prabhṛiti. Patañjali treats it as a country (*Pāraskaro deśaḥ*, III.96). The name corresponds to Thara-Pārkara (Thara being the Sindhi form of Thala meaning dry country or desert, as opposed to Kachchha or *jāṅgala* country), one of the biggest districts of Sindh which once denoted the whole of its south-eastern part up to the coast of the Great Rann of Kachchha or Kachchha-Iriṇa.

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The *Ṛiktantra* takes the name Pāraskara as that of a mountain, and the term Pārakara for non-mountainous region, such as the Thar-Parkar district (*Pāra parvate*, IV.5.10, Suryakant's edition, p. 41).

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⁹ *Kachchha* (IV.2.133). Kachchha represented the water-logged portions in the south as against the dry desert area

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in the north. Kachchha was historically connected with Sindh forming its province in the seventh century when Yuan Chwang visited the country. Cunningham says that Kachchha and Parkar have always been linked together (*Anc. Geog.*, p. 347). Pāṇini also refers to the names of towns ending in Kachchha (IV.2.126), which were mostly situated along the coast from Bhṛigu-Kachchha to the province of Kachchha. The inhabitants of the Kachchha *janapada* were known as Kāchchhaka, and a reference to their peculiarities in speech, laughing and dress has already been noted.

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10. *Kekaya* (VII.3.2). The descendants of the Kshattriyas of the Kekaya *janapada* were known as Kaikeya. The ancient Kekaya *janapada* consisted of the territory now comprised in the three districts of Jhelum, Shahpur and Gujerat.

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11. *Madra* (IV.2.131). Madra was a part of the Vāhīka country, as already seen, with its capital at Śākala, modern Sialkot. Pāṇini mentions two divisions of Madra, Pūrva (Eastern) and Apara (Western) (*Diśo'Madrāṇām*, VII.3.13; also IV.2.108). Pūrva-Madra extended from the Ravi to the Chenab and Apara-Madra from the Chenab to the Jhelum.

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In the *Mahābhārata* Śākala is mentioned as the chief city of the Vāhīkas on the Āpagā river. Patañjali also mentions Śākala as a Vāhīka-*grāma* (IV.2.104; II.294; cf. also *Kāśikā*, IV.2.117). Pāṇini does not explain the derivation of the name Vāhīka. Kātyāyana, however, derives it from *bahis*, 'outside,' with the suffix *īkak* (IV.1.85.5). This seems to agree with the epic description of Vāhīka as the country of five rivers but lying outside the pale of Aryan society (*dharma-bāhya*), devoid of religion (*nashṭa-dharma*) and impure (*aśuchi*) Karṇaparva, 44.7.32).

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¹² *Uśīnara* (IV.2.118. Pāṇini mentions Uśīnara as a part of Vāhīka (cf. *Kāśika* on IV.2.118, *Uśīnareshu ye Vāhīka-grāmāḥ*). In the *Gopatha Brāhmaṇa* the Uśīnaras are regarded as northerners (II. 9, *Śavasośīnareshu Udīchyeshu*).

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Thus Pāṇini names three divisions of the Vāhīka country, *viz.* Kekaya, Uśīnara and Madra to which is to be added the fourth division Śavasa. Of these Kekaya and Śavasa may be located between the Jhelum and the Chenab, the first in the south and the second in the north respectively, and Madra and Uśīnara between the Chenab and the Ravi in the north and south respectively. The divisions become clear on the map.

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The *Divyāvadāna* refers to the Śvasas in Uttarāpatha with headquarters at Takshaśilā to which Aśoka was deputed by his father Bindusāra as Viceroy to quell their rebellion. The name Śavasa or Śvasa seems to be preserved in the modern name Chhibha comprising Punch, Rajauri and Bhimbhara. In literature the Uśīnaras are often associated with the Śibis (Gk. Śiboi) whose chief town Śibipura has been identified with Shorkot, headquarters of a Tehsil in the Jhung district.

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13. *Ambashṭha.* It is mentioned by Pāṇini in *sūtra* VIII.3.97, and is stated by Patañjali to be implied in *sūtra* IV.1.171 as the name of a *janapada* under a monarchy. The *Mahābhārata* locates them in the north-west and describes them as a kingship. The Ambashṭhas may be taken as Gk. *Abastanoi* or *Sambastai* on the lower course of the Chenab (*Invasion of Alexander*, p. 155).

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14. *Trigarta.* It is mentioned by Pāṇini as an *Āyudhajīvī Saṅgha*, and a Confederation of Six States known as Trigarta-Shashṭha (V.3.116). The Trigarta country, although in itself marked out by natural boundaries from the rest of the province, was partitioned into smaller territorial divisions or *janapadas*. The name Trigarta denotes the region drained by the three rivers, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, and corresponds to the Jālandhar group of states which had retained their geographical identity all these years. Jālandharāyaṇa is mentioned in the Rājanyādi group (IV.2.53).

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Patañjali mentions Pātānaprastha as a Vāhīka-grāma (II.298). It may be identified with Paithan or Pathānkot, situated at the entrance of the Kāngrā valley and at one time the capital of the Audumbaras (Cunningham, A.S.R., XIV, p. 116; also V, p. 153).

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The central portion of Trigarta formed by the valley of the Beas was also named Kulūta (same as Ulūka of the Sabhāparva, 27.5-16), now known as Kulū. Its ancient capital was at Nagara on the Beas, a name included in the Katryādi *gaṇa* (IV.2.95).

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Maṇḍamatī (Yavādi *gaṇa*, VII.29) was perhaps modern Maṇḍi, lying to the south of Kulūta. Pāṇini makes special mention of the Bhārgāyaṇa *gotra* in the Trigarta country (IV.1.111).

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¹⁵ *Kalakūṭa* (IV.1.173). It is mentioned as a *janapada* under a king. The Sabhāparva calls it Kālakūṭa and makes it a part of Kulinda (*Kulinda-vishaye*, 26.3) which was conquered by Arjuna. Pāṇini's Kuluna (*Gaṇa-pāṭha*, IV.2.133 and IV.3.93) seems to be the same as Kulinda and later Kuṇinda. Kulinda (Gk. Kulindrini) was known to Ptolemy as an extensive country including the region of the lofty mountains wherein the Beas, the Sutlej, the Yamunā and the Gaṅgā had their sources (McCrindle, *Ptolemy*, p. 105, 109). The Kalakūṭa lay somewhere in this area, with possible traces of its name in modern Kalka in the Simla hills.

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¹⁶ *Kuru* (IV.1.172). It was known to Pāṇini as a *janapada* and a kingdom. He also mentions the town of Hāstinapura (VI.2.101), which was its capital. The region between the triangle of Thaneshwar, Hisar and Hastinapur was distinguished by three different names: Kuru-rāshṭra proper between the Gaṅgā and the Yamunā with its capital at Hastināpura; Kurujāṅgala equal to Rohtak, Hansi, Hissar; and Kuru-kshetra to the north with its centre at Thaneshwar, Kaithal, Karnal. The *Kāśikā* mentions all the three as distinct geographical units (*Kuravaścha Kurukshetraṁ cha Kuru-Kurukshetram, Kuravaścha Kurujāṅgalaṁ cha Kuru-Kurujāṅgalam*, II.47). The name Āsandīvat, the place with the king's throne where Jana-

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mejaya Parīkshit is stated in the *Mahābhārata* to have performed his sacrifice, is also noticed by Pāṇini (VIII.2.12). Pāṇini also refers to the householders' way of life obtaining amongst the Kurus (*Kuru-gārhapatam*, VI.2.42) as against the ascetic way. It seems to be akin to the Kuru-dhamma of the *Jātaka* of that name which insisted on the purity of family life and the cultivation of proper domestic relations and virtues (*Kurudhamma Jātaka*, Vol. III, No. 276), a way of life and philosophy that are reflected in the basic doctrine of the *Bhagavadgītā* expounded in Kurukshetra.

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17. *Sālva.* Pāṇini mentions Sālva (IV.2.135), Sālveya (IV.1.169) and Sālvāvayava (IV.1.173) as three distinct *janapada* units which were monarchies. Of these Sālva seems to have been the parent state, Sālveya equal to Sālvaputra, a collateral branch, and Sālvāvayava, a bunch of kingly states which the enterprising Sālvas either brought under their conquest or planted during the course of their colonising activity. The last although confined to a limited geographical horizon in the central and north-eastern Punjab, were in relation to each other not geographically contiguous.

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The Sālva is mentioned as a pair *janapada* with Matsya as early as the *Gopatha Brāhmaṇa* (I.2.9) and also in the same group in the *Mahābhārata* (Bhīshmaparva, 10.3) where the Śālvas, the Mādreyas and the Jāṅgalas are juxtaposed. Matsya with its capital at Virāṭa (Bairāṭ in Jaipur) provides a fixed point and Sālva should be located near that region. Making allowance for the position of the other known *janapadas*, the only place left for Sālva coincides with the territory extending from Alwar to north Bikaner. It may be mentioned that the Sālvas were an ancient people who seem to have migrated from the west through Baluchistan and Sindh where they left traces of their name in Śālvakā-giri (mentioned by Pāṇini in the *Gaṇa-pāṭha* to VI.3. 117), the present Hālā mountain, and then advancing towards north Sauvīra and along the Sarasvatī finally settled in north Rajasthan. Of their intrusion towards the Yamunā some dim intimation is preserved in an old Vedic verse.¹

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*Sālveyaka*. The Sālveyakas are mentioned as a separate people in the *Mahābhārata*, grouped with the Matsyas in their fight with king Suśarmā of Trigarta (Virāṭaparva, 29. 2). They must be the same as Sālvaputra mentioned in the Udyogaparva (4.24) amongst kings to whom the Pāṇḍavas were to send emissaries. The name Sālvaputra may still be traced in Alwar, which is in the same geographical sphere. The Sālveyas stood in relation to the Sālvas as the Mādreyas to the Madras (Bhīshmaparva 10.37).

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*Sālvāvayava*. Of the several member states grouped in the Sālavavayava confederacy, the *Kāśikā* mentions six, viz. 1. Udumbara, 2. Tilakhala, 3. Madrakāra, 4. Yugandhara, 5. Bhūliṅga and Śaradaṇḍa (IV.¹.173).

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¹ *Yaugandharireva no rājeti Sālvīr-avādishuḥ, Vivṛitta-chakrā āsīnās-tīreṇa Yamune tava.* 'The Sālva women turning their wheels and sitting on thy banks, O Yamunā, have told us that their king is a Yaugandhari.' (Un ancien peuple du Panjab: Les Sālva, *Journal Asiatique* 1929, (pp. 311-354) p. 314). Keith considers a reference to war-like raid more plausible.

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*Udumbara*. The Udumbara (also Rājnyādi group, IV. 3.53) territory is fixed by the find-spots of their coins in the Kangra valley, between the Ravi and the Beas, and at Pathankot in Gurdaspur district at its mouth (Allan, *Coins of Ancient India*, Intro.p. lxxxvii). Udumbarāvatī as a river-name (*Bhāshya*, IV.2.71; II. 287) might be some tributary flowing through the Udumbara country on which the town of the same name was situated.

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*Tilakhala*. Looking at the map of this region we find that the area south of the Beas comprising Hoshiarpur district, where even today sesamum forms the main crop should be indentified with Tilakhala ('the threshing-floors of *tila*'). Thus Tilakhala and Udumbara were immediate neighbours, and the former appear to be the same as the Tilabhāras of the epic (Bhīshmaparva, 10.51)¹.

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¹ Vulgate 9.53; Poona edition gives *tilakāḥ* in the text and *Tilabhāra* in the foot-note.

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*Madrakāra*. The Madrakāras, as pointed out by Prof. Przyluski, signifies the warrior-troops of the Madras (*Les Salva, Journal Asiatique*, 1929, pp. 311-354; from old Persian *kāra* meaning 'army'). Their connection with the Sālvas was the outcome of an important event in the history of the two peoples, viz. the marriage of the Madra princess Sāvitrī with the Sālva prince Satyavān (Vanaparva, 279.15). It appears that consequent to this marriage three new small kingdoms came into existence for which distinct names have been preserved, e.g. 1. Sāvitrīputrakāḥ, 2. Madrakāraḥ and 3. Śālvasenyaḥ. The first represented the hundred sons of Sāvitrī and Satyavān mentioned both in the *Mahābhārata* (*Vanaparva*, 283. 12; Karṇaparva, 4.47) and in the *Gaṇa-pāṭha* (V.3.166, Dāmanyādi *gaṇa*). Putra denoted a clan as in the names Kehar-potre, Chanan-potre, etc. amongst the Arora Khattris of the Punjab, or in such old designations as the Śākyaputras. The Madrakāras and the Śālvasenyāḥ (Skt. *senā* corresponding to Iranian *kāra*; Bhīshmaparva 10.59), were smaller kingdoms of such warrior chiefs as were lent both by the Madras and the Sālvas in order to rehabilitate Sāvitrī and Satyavān who were bereft of their kingdom and married in exile.

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Madrakāra and Bhadrakāra appear to be variants of the same name (*madra*=*bhadra*, *sūtras* II.3.73 and V.4.67). It seems that Bhadra situated on the Ghaggar near the north-eastern border of Bikaner marks their old home.

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*Yugandhara*. Yugandhara should be some where in the region of the Yamunā, since the Sālva women spinning on its banks, as mentioned above, invoked Yaugandhari as their king. It may be located in Ambala district between the Sarasvatī and the upper Yamunā, where Jagādhari, probably is a relic of the old name.

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² Vulgate 9.61. Poona edition gives *Śarvasenyaḥ* in the text and *Śālvasenayaḥ* in the foot-note. For *Śarvasenayaḥ* cf. Pāṇini, V.3.116; *Kāśikā*, VIII.1.5.

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*Bhūliṅga.* The Bhūliṅgas should be identified with the *Bolingae* of Ptolemy settled in the north-west of the Aravallis. Bhūliṅga seems to be the same as Kuliṅga mentioned in the *Mahābhārata* (Bhīshmaparva, 10.38)¹ and the *Rāmāyaṇa* on the route connecting Sāketa and Kekaya at the point where the Śaraḍaṇḍā river was crossed (Ayodhyākāṇḍa, 68.16).

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*Śaradaṇḍa.* The Śaradaṇḍas must have been settled along the Śaradaṇḍā river mentioned above. Nothing is known about it, but the first part of the two names Śaradaṇḍā and Śarāvatī points to their being one and the same river. The latter formed the boundry between the Prāchya and the Udīchya divisions of India and may be identified with the Dṛishadvatī or Chitāṅg.

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*Ajamīḍha and Ajakranda.* Patañjali adds to this list three other names, viz. 1. Bodha, 2. Ajakranda and 3. Ajamīḍha. (IV.¹.170; II.289). The prefix *Aja* in the last two names has reference to a local cult deity Asura Ajaka with whom king Sālva was identified as its incarnation (Ādiparva, 61.17).²

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¹ ^1 The critical edition records Kaliṅga in the text and Kuliṅga in the foot-note; but all the *janapadas* in this list e.g. Sālva, Mādrey, Jāṅgala, Śūrasena, Bodha and Kuru-Pañchāla being of the Punjab-Rajputana region, the original reading must be taken to be Kuliṅga and not Kaliṅga, as supported by a Kashmir MS. also.

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*Bodha.* The Bodhas occur also in the list of the Bhīshmaparva (10.37-38) in the same group as the Kuliṅgas, the Sālvas and the Mādreyas. Patañjali also mentions them along with the Udumbaras (II.4.58; I.489).

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An important economic feature of the Sālva country was its special breed of bulls mentioned as Sālvaka by Pāṇini (IV.².136). The Sālva *janapada* also provided recruits for the infantry known in those days as *Sālvā padāti* (IV.2.135).

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² ^2 Vulgate 67.17; Poona edition gives *malla* in the text and *Sālva* in the footnote.

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Pāṇini further mentions a particular item in the Sālva dietary, the porridge known as *Sālvikā yavāgū* made of barley, which is still a favourite food of the people in Bīkaner and Jaipur states, i.e. the area which was formarly the Sālva *janapada*.

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¹⁸ *Pratyagratha* (IV.1.173). It is the name of a *janapada* in Pāṇini. While Patañjali and the *Kāśikā* are silent on this name, we have the later authority of Hemachandra referring to the Pratyag-rathas as belonging to the Ahichchhatrā region (*Abhidhānachintāmaṇi*, 4. 22). It may be noted that Pāṇini mentions the river named Rathasthā (=Ruhut or Rāmagaṅgā), ‘that which brings the chariot to a halt,’ a meaning suggested by Pratyagratha also. It may be taken as the ‘chariot’ of Aryan advance marching towards the east.

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¹⁹ *Ajāda* (IV.1.171). Nothing is known about this *janapada*. It is connected with the grazing of goats. It may be taken to be the Etawah district, the region between the Chambal and the Yamunā, famous for its goats (Hindi *jamnāpārī bakrī*).

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²⁰ *Rāṅku* (IV.2.100). Pāṇini uses the term Rāṅkavaka for a native of Rāṅku. He also mentions the terms Rāṅkavāvāyaṇa and Rāṅkava to indicate what was non-human, as examples of which the *Kāśikā* mentions the *Rāṅkavāyaṇa* bull and the *Rāṅkava* blankets. It may be noted that Raṅgka is the name of a language used in parts of Almora district (Moti Chandra, Indian Costume, *Bhāratīya Vidyā*, Vol. I, p. 46, footnote; for the Raṅgka language see, *Linguistic Survey of India*, Vol. III, pt. I, p. 479). So the Rāṅku *janapada* may have been located in this region which was the home of woollen blankets. The area of ancient Rāṅku must have been much bigger than at present.

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²¹ *Bhāradvāja* (IV.2.145). The Kāśikā states clearly that Bhāradvāja in this *sūtra* is not a *gotra* name but a country. As Pargiter has remarked Bhāradvāja is often mentioned in the *Mahābhārata* in connection with the upper part of the Ganges near the hills, and the Bhāradvājas were the people living in

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Garhwal (*Mārk. Purāṇa*, p. 320). Pāṇini mentions the Ātreyas as a division of the Bhāradvājas (*Gaṇa-pāṭha Aśvādi*, IV.1.110, *Ātreya Bhāradvāje*), and the *Mahābhārata* and the *Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa* also group them together.

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²² *Kosala* (VI.1.171). As seen above this figures as one of the sixteen *Mahājanapadas* of the Pāli texts. Its town Śrāvastī is mentioned by Pāṇini in a *Gaṇa-pāṭha*; also the two terms Sarayū and Ikshvāku in *sūtra* VI.4.174. Patañjali mentions Ikshvāku as a *janapada* (IV.2.104; II.298) which was obviously the same as Kosala.

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²³ *Kāśi* (IV.2.116). Pāṇini does not mention Kāśi as an independent monarchy like Kosala, and Magadha. The omission may be accidental, or due to political reasons reflecting the condition when Kāśi lost its separate identity and was under the control of Magadha. Pāṇini also mentions the term Vārāṇasī (the capital of the Kāśi *janapada*) in a *gaṇa* IV.2.97, and its citizens as *Vārāṇaseya*.

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²⁴ *Vṛiji* (IV.2.131). It was the name of a *janapada*. Its citizens were called *Vṛijika*.

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²⁵ *Magadha* (IV.1.170). It was a famous monarchy in Pāṇini's time, as we know from other sources. A Kshattriya descendant of the Magadha tribe was termed a *Māgadha*.

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²⁶ *Kaliṅga* (IV.1.170). Pāṇini mentions Kaliṅga as a *janapada* with a monarchy. Probably in his time the boundaries of Kaliṅga and Magadha touched each other.

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²⁷ *Sūramasa* (IV.1.170). As already noted this *janapada* may be identified with the Sūrmā Valley and Hill District of Assam.

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²⁸ *Avanti* (IV.1.175), an independent *janapada* with a monarchical government. Its capital Ujjayinī is referred to in the *Gaṇa-pāṭha* (IV.2.82; IV.2.127).

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²⁹ *Kunti* (IV.1.175). Patañjali instances Kunti and Avanti as *janapada* names ending in short *i* and implied in *sūtra* IV.1.171. The *Mahābhārata* speaks of Kunti as the region through which flowed the Aśva Nadi (Vanaparva,

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308.7), a tributary of the Chambal (Dey, *Geog. Dict.*, p. 109). Kunti must be identified with the region of Kontwar in Gwalior State, through which flows the Kumārī river. Pāṇini also refers to the compound names *Kunti-Surāshṭrāḥ* and *Chinti-Surāshṭrāḥ* indicative of the period when the royal houses of Kunti and Chinti were tied to Surāshṭra (VI.2.37).

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This phenomenon belongs to Mahābhārata polity when the royal house of Kunti under Dantavakra and of Chinti under Śiśupāla suffered a reverse by Kṛishṇa and were tied to the political wheels of Surāshṭra. Chinti seems to be the old name of Chedi.

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30. *Aśmaka* (IV.1.173). Pāṇini also refers to the pair names *Avantyaśmakāḥ*, showing their geographical proximity (VI.2.12). Aśmaka is named Assaka in Pāli texts with its capital at Paiṭhan (Pratishṭhāna) on the Godāvarī.

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Pāṇini refers to *Taitila-kadrū* (VI.2.42) which is mentioned after *Pāre-vaḍavā*, 'a mare from across the Indus' and may have denoted a tawny-coloured mare of the Taitila country. Kauṭilya refers to horses imported from Taitila (*Arthaśāstra*, II.30). The *Mahābhārata* refers to horses of partiridge colour as *tittirakalmāsha* (Sabhāparva, 28.6; 19) which seems to be an equivalent of Taitila-kadrū. These horses came from the Uttara-Kuru regions (north of Pamīr in Central Asia). The Taitila *janapada* may therefore be looked for in the neighbourhood of that region. But according to medieval lexicons Taitila was synonymous with Kaliṅga (*Nānārthārṇava*, II.891; *Vaijayantī*, p. 37, verse 26) which may be identified with Titilgarh, south of Sambalpur in Orissa. In this case Pāṇini's Taitila-kadrū would refer to some tawny-coloured material produced in Kaliṅga, probably rhinoceros hides, from Taitila.

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In the above list the following *janapadas* mark the extreme points of Pāṇini's geographical horizon, Kamboja in the north, Sauvīra in the west, Aśmaka in the south, Kaliṅga in the south-west and Sūramasa in the east.

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Pāṇini also refers to boundaries of *janapadas* as known in the expression *janapada-tadavadhi* (IV.2.124). This indicates that the *janapadas* formed the boundaries of other *janapadas*, without needing any smaller landmark like a village (*Kāśikā*, *tadavadhirapi janapada eva gṛihyate na grāmaḥ*).

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The *Gaṇa-pāṭha* furnishes some additional names of *janapadas*, viz., *Barbara* (IV.3.93, on the sea-cost near the mouth of the Indus where the port Barbarika was situated); *Kaśmīra* (IV.2.133; IV.3.93); *Uraśā* (IV.3.93, modern Hazara); *Darad* (IV.3.93, modern Dardistan); *Gabdikā* (IV.3.93; Patañjali mentions the Gabdikās as living outside Aryāvarta in his time; to be identified with modern Gadderan, the homeland of the Gaddi tribe, beyond Dhaulidhar in the Chambā valley); *Paṭachchara* (IV.2.110, probably modern Pataudi), *Yakṛilloman* (IV.2.110 mentioned in the Bhīshmaparva 9.46 and Virāṭaparva 5.4, and corresponding to the region between Etawah in the north, Jalaun and Orai in the south, and Kalpi in the east); *Sarvasena* (IV.3.92; also called Sārvaseni, cf. *Kāśikā*, VI.2.33; VIII.1.5 described as a dry region;). Bhīshmaparva 9.59). Patañjali mentions the names of two other *janapadas*, viz., Ṛishika and Jihnu (IV.2.104; II.298, Jihnu, perhaps modern Jhind). The name Ṛishika occurs in the *Mahābhārata* as part of Śakadvīpa. Arjuna conquered the Ṛishikas across the Vakshu (Oxus) 'which flowed through the Śaka country.' The Ṛishikas were later known as Yuechis whose language was called Ārśī.

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Further substantial geographical information is obtainable from the *Ashṭādhyāyī* in the form of tribal names of people who were living under political constitutions of a varied character. These together with the names of localities as habitation of particular peoples after whom they were named, will be dealt with in a later chapter on political data.

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