The Cambridge History of India, Vol. IV: The Mughul Period v4: Volume 4
The Cambridge History of India, Vol. IV: The Mughul Period v4
- Language
- English
Contents
- v4.c1 Front matter — 10 parts
- v4.c2 The Cambridge History of India, Volume IV: The Mughul Period — 5 parts
- v4.c3 Preface — 18 parts
- v4.c4 Table of Contents — 38 parts
- v4.c5 Chapter IX — 8 parts
- v4.c6 Chapter XI — 3 parts
- v4.c7 Chapter XII — 8 parts
- v4.c8 Chapter XIV — 5 parts
- v4.c9 Chapter XV — 12 parts
- v4.c10 Chapter XVIII — 12 parts
- v4.c11 Plates — 5 parts
- v4.c12 Chapter I. Bābur — 3 parts
- v4.c13 Chapter II. Humāyūn — 58 parts
- v4.c14 Chapter III. Sher Shāh and the Sūr Dynasty. The Return of Humāyūn — 100 parts
- v4.c15 Chapter IV. Akbar, 1556–1573 — 185 parts
- v4.c16 Chapter V. Akbar, Mystic and Prophet — 208 parts
- v4.c17 Chapter VI. Jahāngīr — 86 parts
- v4.c18 Chapter VII. Shāh Jahān — 123 parts
- v4.c19 Chapter VIII. Aurangzīb (1658–1681) — 235 parts
- v4.c20 Chapter X. Aurangzīb (1681–1707) — 314 parts
- v4.c21 Chapter XIII. The Hyderābād State (1724–1762) — 199 parts
- v4.c22 Chapter XVI. The Revenue System of the Mughul Empire — 73 parts
- v4.c23 Chapter XVII. Burma (1531–1782) — 4 parts
- v4.c24 Bibliography — 11 parts
- v4.c25 Chronology — 2 parts
- v4.c26 Dynasties and Genealogical Tables — 7 parts
- v4.c27 Index — 990 parts
Volume 4
Front matter
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in 2017 with funding from Princeton Theological Seminary Library
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THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF INDIA
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IN SIX VOLUMES
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VOLUME IV
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The Mughul Period
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LONDON Cambridge University Press FETTER LANE
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NEW YORK • TORONTO BOMBAY • CALCUTTA • MADRAS Macmillan
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TOKYO Maruzen Company Ltd
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*All rights reserved*
The Cambridge History of India, Volume IV: The Mughul Period
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VOLUME IV
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PLANNED BY LT.-COLONEL SIR WOLSELEY HAIG K.C.I.E., C.S.I., C.M.G., C.B.E., M.A.
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EDITED BY SIR RICHARD BURN C.S.I., F.R.A.S.B., M.A.
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CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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The Syndics of the University Press are deeply indebted to Sir Dorabji Tata for his generous contribution towards the cost of the illustrations in this volume.
Preface
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THIS VOLUME was planned by Sir Wolseley Haig, whose serious illness unfortunately disabled him from editorial work on any of the material which he had received, and even from revising finally all the chapters to which his name is attached. Thus while Chapters III, IV and V were completed by him in final form and appear as he left them, Chapters IX, XII and XV have been re-written from his full notes.
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In the preceding volume the history terminated, in the case of Delhi at 1526, and in the case of the other Muslim kingdoms of northern and southern India and of the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar at later dates between 1565 and 1600 which marked their extinction or definite stages in their history. The narrative is carried on here to the accession of Shāh ‘Ālam II, during whose nominal rule Delhi was to be included in British territory. As the volume deals primarily with Mughul India references to the European powers which obtained a footing in the country are incidental, and fuller accounts of their progress or varying fortunes will be found in Volumes V and VI.
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Disappointed of his hopes to recover the seat of his ancestors in Central Asia Bābur had already raided India, when he was invited to penetrate farther, and succeeded in founding a new empire there owing to the mutual distrust of each other which characterised the Afghān chiefs in northern India, and to the superiority of his small but trained force. His son Humāyūn, whose character shows alternate energy and sloth, bravery and indecision, conquered areas and lost them during ten years, till he was driven into exile by Sher Shāh, the single Afghān ruler in India who could hold Afghāns together, and who had had practical experience of administration in lower grades. Sher Shāh’s early death and the incompetence of his successors led to Humāyūn’s return, but an accident cut short his life after a few months.
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Akbar, succeeding as a boy to a much smaller area than his grandfather had held, left at his death an empire extending from Qandahār to the Bay of Bengal and from the Hindu Kush to the Deccan; and apart from mere territorial acquisition he had realised as none of his predecessors had done that successful government is bound up with consent by the governed as well as with domination by the ruler. His methods of administration remained the ideal throughout the Mughul period, though neglected or distorted, and some of them still survive. Political success too often feeds egotism, and in Akbar’s case illiteracy withheld restraint so that his religious speculations bred derision.
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At his death reaction was certain and under Jahāngīr, whose temperament was artistic rather than practical and in whom generosity degenerated into self-indulgence, administration declined. For a time there was a revival under Shāh Jahān, whose success in India led him to attempt the traditional enterprise of his line for the recovery of Central Asia. But a century of life in India had produced Mughul princes disinclined for the rigours and solitudes to be endured north of the Hindu Kush and the effort failed.
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Succession to Bābur and his descendants had not taken place without jealousy or open dispute, and Jahāngīr and Shāh Jahān had each rebelled in his father's lifetime. The serious illness of Shāh Jahān kindled the smouldering envy of his four sons and war ensued from which Aurangzīb emerged successful, having killed or exiled his three brothers, and made his father a prisoner in the fort of Āgra, to survive there for eighteen years. Aurangzīb's reign falls into two periods. From 1658 to 1681 he remained in northern India, where his narrow-minded efficiency and religious intolerance caused the alienation of the warlike frontier tribes and destroyed the loyalty of the Rājputs to the empire which had been won by Akbar and maintained by Jahāngīr and Shāh Jahān. Having, as he believed, subdued these discordant elements, he left for southern India to extinguish the remaining Muslim powers there and to quell the rising activities of the Marāthās. Success in the former enterprise increased his difficulties in the latter and after ceaseless strife his life ended with the limits of the empire extended, but its resources squandered and its army ruined, while in the north the Sikhs and Jāts were also showing rebellious tendencies.
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Aurangzīb's dying efforts to prevent his sons from repeating the fratricidal war for which he had set them an example failed. His son Shāh ‘Ālam Bahādur defeated his brothers, but was old and tired and reigned only a few years. The Delhi empire now becomes the subject of contests between nobles who set up puppet rulers, establish a new hereditary rule of succession to public office, and carve out principalities for themselves which are independent of the emperor in all but name, and of which Hyderābād, Bengal, Oudh and Rohilkhand are the chief. The Marāthās, first enlisted by the Deccan kingdoms to oppose Jahāngīr's invading army, and gradually turning into a compact nation in their homeland, later engage in guerrilla expeditions beyond its limits. The Nizām of Hyderābād, to protect himself, diverts them against Delhi, and the Nawāb of Oudh rashly invites their assistance against his rival the Nawāb of Farrukhābād and thus brings them into the Dūāb. Weakened by the shattering raid of Nādir Shāh the Delhi empire cannot withstand them and they advance far into the Punjab. With a stable and effective administration at home their activities outside the Deccan are chiefly predatory till their military officers in Gujarāt, Mālwā and Nāgpur assume independence.
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The story is ended in this volume by the temporary union of the disintegrating Muslim powers with the Afghān invader Ahmad Shāh Abdālī, who delivers a shattering blow to Marāthā pretentions at Pānīpat, while the Rājputs, who have also suffered, hold aloof, and Shāh ‘Ālam II succeeds to a shrunken territory, hemmed in by Hindu states on three sides and the new Rohilla and Oudh rulers on the other.
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For the first time in Indian history the politics of Burma and India clash, largely owing to acts of piracy committed by Arakanese and refugees from Portuguese settlements. Chapter XVII also describes the separate dynasties which held power in Burma till Alaungpaya founded the latest.
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For the revenue system of the Mughuls more information is available than was the case with their predecessors. Its importance justifies the allotment of a separate chapter, XVI. As in Volume III, the monuments are the subject of a chapter, XVIII, with numerous illustrations, including references to the buildings of Bījāpur, Khāndesh, Sind and the Rājputs dating from the Mughul period. Permission to reproduce Figs. 24 and 25 has been generously given by the authorities of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, and Fig. 67 by the Archaeological Survey of India, which retains the copyright. Prints for the other plates were obtained from the following sources: Messrs Johnston and Hoffman, Calcutta: Figs. 7, 17, 37, 45, 46, 57, 61, 63, 83. Messrs Plâte, Ltd., Colombo: Figs. 18, 36, 44, 60, 62, 85. Messrs Bourne and Shepherd, Calcutta: Figs. 38, 43, 47, 52, 73, 86.
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Sir Wolseley Haig’s scheme of transliteration in Volume III has been mainly followed though *hamza* has been more sparingly marked in words such as *ta’rīkh* and *Sha’n*, which are pronounced in India to-day as *tārīkh* and *Shān*. Names of places are usually spelt as in the *Imperial Gazetteer of India*, for which special enquiries were made to ascertain the correct modern vernacular form. That form was transliterated according to a uniform plan except in cases where official or English literary usage had established a corruption, such as Calcutta, Bombay or Cawnpore. The index contains a number of alternative forms, sometimes not used in the book, for names often spelt differently or for names newly identified in it.
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Personal names cause greater difficulty. Those of Hindus are usually derived from Sanskrit, but in the modern vernaculars have assumed differing forms, so that a single Sanskrit name may have even more spellings in its modern dress than “Philip” has in the languages of Europe, and a still larger number of pronunciations. While names of Muslims are more regular an additional complication arises from the use of titles, especially during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when we find a series of individuals each with the title of Khān Jahān or Fīrūz Jang, or on the other hand an individual bearing different titles in succession. In the text an attempt has been made to reduce confusion by using the appellation held for the longest period, while the index includes other titles and cross-references to them.
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In rendering official designations into English it is desirable to avoid terms which have a specialised sense in European countries. This applies particularly to the term *jāgīr*, which appears as “assignment”. Many writers have translated it by “fief”, which is not appropriate for several reasons. The system is explained at pp. 455–456, and the reason for discarding the term “fief” is that the “assignment” of an official was always liable to change, was not hereditary, and was not necessarily within the area of the official’s jurisdiction. The largest administrative division of the empire (*sūba*) has been called a province, and the officer in charge (*sipāh sālār* or *sūbadār*) a viceroy. The term “commandant” represents the officer in executive charge of a smaller area (*Faujdār*) or of a fort (*qila‘dār*).
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One of the maps has been adapted from a map in Volume III, and three are taken with small changes from maps in the *Cambridge Shorter History of India*. Map V has been redrawn, by permission of Messrs Longmans, from the map facing p. 152, *History of Burma*, by G. E. Harvey. Map VI has been specially prepared to show the more important places mentioned in the book.
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The index is not exhaustive of all references to well-known places such as Āgra which are frequently mentioned, but it includes indications of important items concerning them.
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Dates of the Hijra year have been converted into the Christian era by using New Style from 1583, when Pope Gregory XIII reformed the Christian calendar, though Britain did not adopt the new reckoning till 1752.
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Acknowledgments are due to all the contributors to this volume for their readiness to co-operate in obliterating the differences which arise when the same series of events has to be dealt with by a number of writers and in all other matters connected with the book. Special assistance outside his own chapter has been received from Mr W. H. Moreland, C.S.I., C.I.E., and Sir Jadunath Sarkar undertook at very short notice Chapter XIII, which Sir Wolseley Haig had intended to write. I am also indebted to Sir Verney Lovett, K.C.S.I., for instructive criticism, and to Mr C. E. A. W. Oldham, C.S.I., Mr Ghulam Yazdani, Director of Archaeology, Hyderābād State, and to the late S. Ahmad Hasan, C.I.E., for throwing light on a number of obscurities. During the printing of the volume the University Press has given invaluable help to reconcile discrepancies and avoid blemishes.
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*January* 1937
Table of Contents
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GENERAL PLAN
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| | PAGES |
| Bābur . . . . . . . . . . | 1–20 |
| Humāyūn, 1530–1540 . . . . . . . . | 21–44 |
| Sher Shāh, the Sūr dynasty, Humāyūn, 1555–1556 . . . . | 45–69 |
| Akbar, 1556–1573 . . . . . . . . | 70–107 |
| Akbar, Mystic and Prophet, 1573–1605 . . . . . . | 108–155 |
| Jahāngīr . . . . . . . . . . | 156–182 |
| Shāh Jahān . . . . . . . . . . | 183–221 |
| Aurangzīb, 1658–1681 . . . . . . . . | 222–259 |
| Independent kingdoms of the Deccan and rise of the Marāthās . . | 260–280 |
| Aurangzīb, 1681–1707 . . . . . . . . | 281–318 |
| Bahādur Shāh I, Jahāndār Shāh, Farrukh-siyar, Rafī‘-ud-Darajāt and Rafī‘-ud-Daula . . . . . . . . | 319–340 |
| Muhammad Shāh . . . . . . . . | 341–376 |
| The Hyderābād State, 1724–*c.* 1761 . . . . . . | 377–391 |
| Growth of the Marāthā power to 1761 . . . . . | 392–427 |
| Ahmad Shāh, ‘Ālamgīr II to 1761 . . . . . . | 428–448 |
| The Revenue System of the Mughuls . . . . . . | 449–475 |
| The History of Burma . . . . . . . . | 476–522 |
| Monuments of the Mughul period . . . . . . | 523–576 |
| Bibliographies . . . . . . . . . | 577–598 |
| Chronology, India . . . . . . . . | 599–610 |
| Chronology, Burma . . . . . . . . | 611–612 |
| Dynasties and Genealogical Tables . . . . . . | 613–623 |
| Index . . . . . . . . . . | 625–670 |
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CHAPTER I
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BĀBUR
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By Sir E. Denison Ross, C.I.E., Ph.D., D.Litt., Director of the School of Oriental Studies, London.
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| | PAGE |
| The situation in Persia and Turkestān . . . . . . . | 1 |
| Wars and intrigues in Bābur's youth . . . . . . . | 2 |
| Bābur's birth and parentage . . . . . . . . | 3 |
| Early vicissitudes . . . . . . . . . | 4 |
| Bābur establishes himself in Kābul . . . . . . . | 5 |
| His first raid into India . . . . . . . . | 5 |
| Bābur assumes title of emperor . . . . . . . | 6 |
| Bābur and Shāh Isma‘īl . . . . . . . . | 7 |
| Hopes of rule in Samarqand abandoned . . . . . . | 8 |
| Buhlūl Lodī . . . . . . . . . | 9 |
| The four invasions of India . . . . . . . . | 10 |
| ‘Ālam Khān and Daulat Khān . . . . . . . | 11 |
| Bābur subdues the Punjab . . . . . . . . | 12 |
| The battle of Pānīpat . . . . . . . . | 13 |
| Bābur's description of India . . . . . . . . | 14 |
| Bābur settles in Hindūstān . . . . . . . . | 15 |
| War against the Rājputs . . . . . . . . | 16 |
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The battle of Khānua . . . . . . . . . 17 Bābur's illness and death . . . . . . . . 18 His character . . . . . . . . . . 19 *Memoirs* and poems . . . . . . . . . 20
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CHAPTER II
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HUMĀYŪN
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By Sir Richard Burn, C.S.I., F.R.A.S.B., M.A.
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Humāyūn divides the empire . . . . . . . . 21 The difficulties before him . . . . . . . . 22 Humāyūn invades Gujarāt . . . . . . . . 23 Capture of Māndū and Chāmpāner . . . . . . . 24 Humāyūn fails to hold Gujarāt . . . . . . . 25 Return to Māndū . . . . . . . . . 26 Gujarāt lost, and revolt in eastern provinces . . . . . 27 Expedition against Sher Khān . . . . . . . . 28 Chunār taken and Bihār and Bengal invaded . . . . . 29 Gaur occupied and then abandoned . . . . . . . 30 Humāyūn's retreat from Bengal . . . . . . . 31 Hindāl and Kāmrān fail to help him . . . . . . 32 Sher Khān routs Mughal army at Chausa . . . . . . 33 Humāyūn again defeated by Sher Khān near Kanauj . . . . 34 Humāyūn flees to the Punjab . . . . . . . . 35 Schemes for a place of refuge . . . . . . . 36 Failure to occupy Sind . . . . . . . . . 37 Marriage to Hamīda Begam . . . . . . . . 38 Hopes of aid in Rājputāna . . . . . . . . 39 Humāyūn takes refuge in Persia . . . . . . . 40 Capture of Qandahār and Kābul . . . . . . . 41 Kāmrān in revolt . . . . . . . . . 42 Character of Humāyūn . . . . . . . . . 43
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CHAPTER III
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SHER SHĀH AND THE SŪR DYNASTY. THE RETURN OF HUMĀYŪN
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By Lt.-Colonel Sir Wolseley Haig, K.C.I.E., C.S.I., C.M.G., C.B.E., M.A.
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The Sūr Afghāns . . . . . . . . . 45 Early life of Farīd (Sher) Khān . . . . . . . 46 Sher Khān enters Bābur's service . . . . . . . 47 Dissensions among the Afghāns . . . . . . . 48 Humāyūn defeats Mahmūd Lodī . . . . . . . 49 Sher Khān's son takes Bengal . . . . . . . . 50 Humāyūn defeated at Chausa and Kanauj . . . . . . 51 Sher Khān's administration of Bengal . . . . . . 52 Pūran Mal of Rāisen . . . . . . . . . 53 Operations against the Rājputs . . . . . . . 54 Death of Sher Shāh and character . . . . . . . 55 His methods of administration . . . . . . . . 56
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Construction of roads and buildings . . . . . . . 57 Succession of Islām Shāh . . . . . . . 58 Rebellion of the Niyāzīs . . . . . . . 59 Persecution of the nobles . . . . . . . 60 Death of Islām Shāh. Messianic propaganda . . . . . 61 Activities of Shāh 'Alā'ī . . . . . . . 62 Character of Islām Shāh . . . . . . . 63 Succession of Muhammad 'Ādil Shāh . . . . . . 64 Influence of Hīmū . . . . . . . 65 Ibrāhīm Shāh assumes independence . . . . . . 65 Ahmad Khān claims sovereignty as Sikandar Shāh . . . . 66 Humāyūn invades India . . . . . . . 67 Defeat of Sikandar Shāh . . . . . . . 68 Death of Humāyūn, and succession of Akbar . . . . . 69
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CHAPTER IV
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AKBAR, 1556–1573
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By Lt.-Colonel Sir Wolseley Haig.
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Problems before the new emperor . . . . . . . 70 Hīmū takes Delhi . . . . . . . 71 Battle of Pānīpat . . . . . . . 72 Sikandar Shāh surrenders . . . . . . . 73 Factions at the court . . . . . . . 74 The "foster-father cohort" . . . . . . . 75 Akbar's education . . . . . . . 76 Bairam Khān dismissed . . . . . . . 77 Rebellion and death of Bairam Khān . . . . . . 78 Invasion of Mālwā . . . . . . . 79 Akbar's feats of daring . . . . . . . 80 Rebellion in eastern provinces . . . . . . . 81 Akbar marries princess of Amber . . . . . . . 81 Merta captured. Rebellion in Mālwā . . . . . . 82 Murder of Atga Khān . . . . . . . 83 Akbar shakes off evil influences . . . . . . . 84 Confusion at Kābul . . . . . . . 85 Expedition against Gakkhars . . . . . . . 86 Muzaffar 'Alī appointed *Dīwān* . . . . . . . 87 Reduction of Garha-Katanga . . . . . . . 88 Mālwā rebellion quelled . . . . . . . 89 Āgra fort begun . . . . . . . 89 Afghān invasion of Bihār defeated . . . . . . 90 Attempts to reform administration . . . . . . . 90 Uzbegs in India rebel . . . . . . . 91 Operations against the Uzbegs . . . . . . . 92 Uzbegs defeated and pardoned . . . . . . . 93 Muhammad Hakīm invades Punjab but retires . . . . . 94 Rebellion of the Mīrzās . . . . . . . 94 Akbar's sport near Lahore . . . . . . . 95 Final suppression of the Uzbegs . . . . . . . 96 Expedition against the Rānā of Chitor . . . . . . 97 Fortress of Chitor taken . . . . . . . 98 Massacre at Chitor . . . . . . . 99 Dispersal of the "foster-father cohort" . . . . . . 100 Capture of Ranthambhor and Kālinjar . . . . . . 101
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| | PAGE |
| Birth of Akbar’s children . . . . . . . . . | 102 |
| Invasion of Gujarāt . . . . . . . . . . | 103 |
| Gujarāt subdued . . . . . . . . . . | 104 |
| Operations against the Mīrzās . . . . . . . . | 105 |
| The Mīrzās dispersed . . . . . . . . . | 106 |
| Akbar’s religious misgivings . . . . . . . . | 107 |
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CHAPTER V
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AKBAR, MYSTIC AND PROPHET
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By Lt.-Colonel Sir Wolseley Haig.
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| Akbar suppresses revolt in Gujarāt . . . . . . . | 108 |
| Todar Mal revises land revenue settlement in Gujarāt . . . | 109 |
| Imperial administrative reforms . . . . . . . | 109 |
| Discontent caused by reforms . . . . . . . | 110 |
| Abu-’l-Fazl and Badāūnī arrive at court . . . . . . | 111 |
| Invasion of Bengal . . . . . . . . . | 112 |
| Bengal occupied . . . . . . . . . . | 113 |
| The “Hall of Worship” . . . . . . . . | 113 |
| Religious dissensions . . . . . . . . . | 114 |
| Fresh campaign against the Rānā . . . . . . . | 115 |
| Bengal finally subdued . . . . . . . . | 116 |
| Submission of minor Rājput chiefs and of Khāndesh . . . | 117 |
| Rebellion in Gujarāt . . . . . . . . . | 118 |
| Akbar’s religious meditations . . . . . . . . | 119 |
| Muslim sectarian disputes . . . . . . . . | 120 |
| Akbar assumes spiritual authority . . . . . . . | 121 |
| The Infallibility Decree . . . . . . . . . | 122 |
| Discontent of orthodox divines . . . . . . . | 123 |
| The first Jesuit mission . . . . . . . . . | 124 |
| The Jesuits unable to convert Akbar . . . . . . . | 125 |
| Widespread rebellion . . . . . . . . . | 125 |
| Rebels declare for Muhammad Hakīm . . . . . . | 126 |
| Akbar marches against Muhammad Hakīm . . . . . | 127 |
| Muhammad Hakīm submits . . . . . . . . | 128 |
| Akbar’s hostility to the Portuguese . . . . . . | 128 |
| The “Divine Faith” . . . . . . . . . | 129 |
| Examination of various creeds . . . . . . . | 130 |
| Exclusion of Islām . . . . . . . . . | 131 |
| Disturbances in Bengal and Gujarāt . . . . . . | 132 |
| Administrative reforms . . . . . . . . | 133 |
| “Divine Era” introduced . . . . . . . . | 134 |
| Expeditions into Kashmīr and tribal areas . . . . . | 135 |
| Kashmīr annexed. Frontier operations . . . . . . | 136 |
| Berār invaded. Sind annexed . . . . . . . | 137 |
| Akbar visits Kashmīr . . . . . . . . . | 138 |
| Death of Rājā Todar Mal . . . . . . . . | 138 |
| Reduction of disorder in Bengal . . . . . . . | 139 |
| Second Christian mission . . . . . . . . | 139 |
| Rebellion in Kashmīr . . . . . . . . . | 140 |
| Qandahār surrendered to Mughuls . . . . . . | 141 |
| Third Christian mission . . . . . . . . | 141 |
| Famine from 1595 to 1599 . . . . . . . . | 142 |
| Successes in the Deccan . . . . . . . . | 143 |
| Akbar sets out for the Deccan . . . . . . . | 144 |
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Death of Sultān Murād . . . . . . . . 144 Negotiations with Ahmadnagar . . . . . . . 145 Akbar arrives in Deccan . . . . . . . . 146 Disobedience of Salīm . . . . . . . . 146 Ahmadnagar taken by storm . . . . . . . 147 Annexation of Khāndesh . . . . . . . . 148 Salīm rebellious . . . . . . . . . 149 Murder of Abu-'l-Fazl . . . . . . . . 149 Reconciliation between Salīm and Akbar . . . . . . 150 Misconduct of Salīm . . . . . . . . 151 John Mildenhall at Akbar's court . . . . . . 151 Akbar's last illness . . . . . . . . . 152 Death of Akbar . . . . . . . . . 153 Character of Akbar . . . . . . . . . 154 His personal appearance . . . . . . . . 155
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CHAPTER VI
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JAHĀNGĪR
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By Sir Richard Burn.
v4.c4.30
Jahāngīr's accession . . . . . . . . 156 Khusrav's revolt . . . . . . . . . 156 Revolts quelled . . . . . . . . . 157 Fresh plot in favour of Khusrav . . . . . . 158 Expedition against Mewār . . . . . . . 158 Disasters in the Deccan . . . . . . . . 159 Failure of renewed Mughul attack on Ahmadnagar . . . . 160 Rebellion in Bengal . . . . . . . . . 160 Khurram's success in Mewār . . . . . . . 161 The English and the Mughuls . . . . . . . 162 Nūr Jahān's influence . . . . . . . . 163 Prince Khusrav . . . . . . . . . 164 Khurram's negotiations in the Deccan . . . . . . 165 Roe's agreement with Shāh Jahān . . . . . . 166 Jahāngīr in Gujarāt . . . . . . . . . 166 Visit to Kashmīr . . . . . . . . . 167 Capture of Kāngra . . . . . . . . . 168 Shāh Jahān deputed to the Deccan . . . . . . 168 Treaties with kingdoms in the Deccan . . . . . . 169 Death of Khusrav . . . . . . . . . 169 Loss of Qandahār . . . . . . . . . 170 Shāh Jahān rebels . . . . . . . . . 171 His success in Bengal and Bihār . . . . . . 172 Defeat and flight to Deccan . . . . . . . 173 Jahāngīr's health fails . . . . . . . . 174 Mahābat Khān's *coup d'état* . . . . . . . 175 Death of Malik 'Ambar . . . . . . . . 176 Jahāngīr's last illness . . . . . . . . 177 His character . . . . . . . . . 178 Artistic taste . . . . . . . . . 179 Love of literature and dress . . . . . . . 180 Politics and administration . . . . . . . 181 Religious views . . . . . . . . . 182
v4.c4.31
CHAPTER VII
v4.c4.32
SHĀH JAHĀN
v4.c4.33
By Sir Richard Burn.
v4.c4.34
| | PAGE |
| Accession | 183 |
| Petty local disturbances | 184 |
| Rebellion of Khān Jahān | 185 |
| Famine in the Deccan | 186 |
| Khān Jahān defeated | 187 |
| Dissensions in Bījāpur | 188 |
| Death of Mumtāz Mahall | 189 |
| King of Ahmadnagar poisoned by Fath Khān | 189 |
| Āsaf Khān fails to take Bījāpur | 190 |
| Mughal attack on Hooghly | 191 |
| Attack on Ahmadnagar by Bījāpur | 192 |
| Storming of Daulatābād | 193 |
| Death of Mahābat Khān | 194 |
| Rebellion in Bundelkhand | 195 |
| Peace made with Bījāpur | 196 |
| Conditions of peace with Golconda | 197 |
| Shāhjī enters service of Bījāpur | 198 |
| Qandahār surrendered to Mughuls | 199 |
| Campaign in Assam | 200 |
| Annexation of Bāglān | 200 |
| War with Portuguese | 200 |
| Insurrection in Kāngra | 200 |
| Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand and Mālwa | 201 |
| Plans for invading Transoxiana | 202 |
| Capture of Badakhshān and Balkh | 203 |
| Balkh abandoned | 204 |
| Loss of Qandahār | 205 |
| Failure to recover Qandahār | 206 |
| Disputes with Golconda | 207 |
| Aurangzīb enforces terms on Golconda | 208 |
| Aurangzīb attacks Bījāpur | 209 |
| Shivājī hostile to Mughuls | 210 |
| Aurangzīb's complaints against Dārā | 210 |
| The struggle for succession | 211 |
| Shāh Shujāʿ defeated | 212 |
| Aurangzīb and Murād gain a victory | 212 |
| Battle of Sāmogarh | 213 |
| Dārā's flight and pursuit | 214 |
| Shāh Jahān imprisoned at Āgra | 214 |
| Aurangzīb becomes emperor | 215 |
| Character of Shāh Jahān | 216 |
| Shāh Jahān's religious intolerance | 217 |
| His administration | 218 |
| Foreign policy | 219 |
| Architecture and literature | 220 |
| Vernacular poems | 221 |
v4.c4.35
CHAPTER VIII
v4.c4.36
AURANGZĪB (1658–1681)
v4.c4.37
By Sir Jadunath Sarkar, C.I.E., D.Litt.
v4.c4.38
| | PAGE |
| Coronation of Aurangzīb | 222 |
| Pursuit of Dārā Shukoh | 223 |
| Battle against Shujā‘ at Korā | 224 |
| Struggle with Shujā‘ | 225 |
| Flight and death of Shujā‘ | 226 |
| End of Dārā Shukoh | 227 |
| Sulaimān and Murād Bakhsh executed | 228 |
| Aurangzīb’s second coronation | 228 |
| Foreign embassies to Aurangzīb | 229 |
| Religious ordinances | 230 |
| Social and administrative reforms | 231 |
| Heretics of Islām | 232 |
| Relations with Shāh Jahān | 232 |
| Shāh Jahān’s last days | 233 |
| Invasion of Assam | 234 |
| Mīr Jumla’s successes and death | 235 |
| The Magh pirates of Chittagong | 236 |
| Conquest of Chittagong | 237 |
| Rebellions by Yūsufzāīs and Afrīdīs | 238 |
| Wars with frontier Afghāns | 239 |
| Amīr Khān’s pacification of Afghānistān | 240 |
| Action against Hindus | 240 |
| Destruction of temples | 241 |
| Imposition of poll-tax | 242 |
| Persecution of Hindus | 243 |
| Revolts by Jāts and Satnāmīs | 243 |
| Militarisation of the Sikhs | 244 |
| Growth of Sikh power | 245 |
| Govind Singh’s death | 246 |
| Mārwār seized by Aurangzīb | 247 |
| Pillage of Mārwār | 248 |
| Invasion of Mewār | 249 |
| Rājputs incite prince Akbar to rebel | 250 |
| Rebellion of Akbar | 251 |
| Mewār regains peace | 252 |
| Relations with states in Deccan | 253 |
| Jay Singh attacks Bījāpur | 254 |
| Bahādur Khān defeated by Bījāpur | 255 |
| Dilīr Khān fails to take Bījāpur | 256 |
| Early career of Shivājī | 257 |
| Shivājī visits court at Āgra | 258 |
| Full growth of Shivājī’s power | 259 |
| Shivājī’s death | 259 |
Chapter IX
v4.c5.1
THE KINGDOMS OF THE DECCAN DURING THE REIGNS OF JAHĀNGĪR, SHĀH JAHĀN AND AURANGZĪB, AND THE RISE OF THE MARĀTHĀ POWER
v4.c5.2
By Lt.-Colonel Sir Wolseley Haig.
v4.c5.3
| | PAGE |
| Parvīz and Khurram viceroys of the Deccan | 260 |
| Shāh Jahān's contests with Malik 'Ambar | 261 |
| Malik 'Ambar attacks Bījāpur | 262 |
| Death of Malik 'Ambar | 263 |
| Shāh Jahān as emperor proceeds to the Deccan | 264 |
| Extinction of the Nizām Shāhī dynasty | 265 |
| Claim to sovereignty over Bījāpur and Golconda | 266 |
| Terms of peace with Bījāpur | 267 |
| Rise of Shivājī | 268 |
| Aurangzīb attacks Golconda | 269 |
| Peace made with Golconda | 270 |
| Invasion of Bījāpur | 271 |
| Shivājī kills Afzal Khān | 272 |
| Shivājī assumes royal title | 273 |
| Cabals in Golconda and Bījāpur | 274 |
| Aggressions by Shivājī | 275 |
| Shivājī raids the Carnatic | 276 |
| Attempts to save Golconda and Bījāpur | 277 |
| Marāthā aid to Bījāpur | 278 |
| Character and achievements of Shivājī | 279 |
v4.c5.4
CHAPTER X
v4.c5.5
AURANGZĪB (1681–1707)
v4.c5.6
By Sir Jadunath Sarkar.
v4.c5.7
| Aurangzīb marches to the Deccan | 281 |
| Prince Akbar assumes sovereignty | 282 |
| Campaigns against Shambhūjī | 283 |
| Capture of Shambhūjī | 284 |
| Rājā Rām succeeds | 284 |
| Last siege of Bījāpur | 285 |
| Affairs of Golconda | 286 |
| Mughul attacks on Qutb Shāh | 287 |
| Shiah-Sunnī dissensions | 288 |
| Capture of Golconda fort | 289 |
| Campaign against Marāthā forts | 290 |
| Marāthā partisan war | 291 |
| Rājā Rām at Gingee | 292 |
| Zu-'l-Fiqār Khān besieges Gingee | 293 |
| Raids by Santā and Dhana | 294 |
| Rājā Rām's last efforts | 295 |
| Continued sieges of Marāthā forts | 296 |
| Capture of Sātārā and Parlī | 297 |
| Khelnā and Kondhānā taken | 298 |
v4.c5.8
Aurangzīb’s last campaign . . . . . . . 299 Marāthā methods of spoliation . . . . . . . 300 Aurangzīb’s last year . . . . . . . 301 Aurangzīb’s death . . . . . . . 302 Rāthor war of liberation . . . . . . . 303 Rebellions of Durgā Dās . . . . . . . 304 Jāt rebellions crushed . . . . . . . 305 Risings in Mālwā and Bihār . . . . . . . 306 English East India Company . . . . . . . 306 English traders in India . . . . . . . 307 Mughul attacks on English . . . . . . . 308 European piracy in Indian waters . . . . . . . 309 Agreement between Mughuls and Europeans . . . . . 310 Bengal in Aurangzīb’s reign . . . . . . . 311 Ja‘far Khān’s administration of Bengal . . . . . . 312 Rise of Chhatra Sāl Bundelā . . . . . . . 313 Gondwāna affairs . . . . . . . 314 Disorders in Gujarāt . . . . . . . 315 Revenues of the empire . . . . . . . 316 India’s imports and exports . . . . . . . 317 Aurangzīb’s character . . . . . . . 317–18
Chapter XI
v4.c6.1
BAHĀDUR SHĀH, JAHĀNDĀR SHĀH, FARRUKH-SIYAR, RAFĪ‘-UD-DARAJĀT AND RAFĪ‘-UD-DAULA
v4.c6.2
By Sir Jadunath Sarkar.
v4.c6.3
Contest for succession to Aurangzīb . . . . . . . 319 A‘zam defeated by Bahādur Shāh at Sāmogarh . . . . . 320 War in Rājputāna . . . . . . . 321 Sikh revolt . . . . . . . 322 War with Banda the Sikh Gurū . . . . . . . 323 Death and character of Bahādur Shāh . . . . . . 324 Fight between Bahādur Shāh’s sons . . . . . . . 325 Jahāndār Shāh succeeds to throne . . . . . . . 326 Farrukh-siyar’s advance from Patna . . . . . . . 327 Battle between Jahāndār and Farrukh-siyar . . . . . . 328 Jahāndār’s defeat and flight . . . . . . . 329 Farrukh-siyar’s coronation . . . . . . . 330 His new appointments . . . . . . . 331 The Turānī and Īrānī factions . . . . . . . 331 Farrukh-siyar’s character . . . . . . . 332 Sayyid brothers break with Farrukh-siyar . . . . . . 333 Plots against the Sayyids . . . . . . . 334 Sikh Gurū Banda captured . . . . . . . 335 Churāman consolidates Jāt power . . . . . . . 336 Farrukh-siyar again plots against the Sayyids . . . . . . 337 Pretence of reconciliation . . . . . . . 338 Farrukh-siyar deposed and murdered . . . . . . . 339 Rafī‘-ud-Darajāt placed on throne . . . . . . . 339 Nikū-siyar proclaimed at Agra . . . . . . . 340 Death of Rafī‘-ud-Darajāt . . . . . . . 340 Rafī‘-ud-Daula enthroned as Shāh Jahān II . . . . . . 340 Death of Rafī‘-ud-Daula and succession of Muhammad Shāh . . . . 340
Chapter XII
v4.c7.1
MUHAMMAD SHĀH
v4.c7.2
By Lt.-Colonel Sir Wolseley Haig.
v4.c7.3
| | PAGE |
| The provinces at Muhammad Shāh's accession | 341 |
| Quarrel between the Sayyid brothers | 342 |
| Nizām-ul-Mulk opposes the Sayyids | 343 |
| Assassination of Husain ‘Alī | 344 |
| Sayyid ‘Abdullah Khān defeated and imprisoned | 345 |
| The heresy of Namūd | 346 |
| Nizām-ul-Mulk appointed minister | 347 |
| Rise of the Jāts | 348 |
| Nizām-ul-Mulk returns to the Deccan | 349 |
| Battle of Shakarkhelda | 350 |
| Contests for Gujarāt | 351 |
| Abhay Singh expels Sarbuland Khān | 352 |
| Muhammad Khān Bangash in Bundelkhand | 353 |
| Marāthā raids in Mālwā | 354 |
| Insurrection in Allahābād | 355 |
| Bājī Rāo’s raid on Delhi | 356 |
| Nizām-ul-Mulk attacked by Marāthās | 356 |
| Peace terms with Marāthās | 357 |
| Rise of Nādir Shāh | 357 |
| Nādir Shāh invades India | 358 |
| Mughul attempts to repel Nādir Shāh | 359 |
| Nādir Shāh’s victory at Karnāl | 360 |
| Negotiations for an indemnity | 360 |
| General massacre in Delhi | 361 |
| Nādir Shāh’s booty | 362 |
| Intrigues against the Turanian faction | 363 |
| Bengal, Bihār and Orissa | 364 |
| Death of Bājī Rāo Peshwā | 365 |
| Failure of ‘Āzim-ullah to recover Mālwā | 366 |
| The Marāthās invade Bengal | 367 |
| Raghūjī Bhonsle retires from Bengal | 368 |
| Rise of the Rohilla power | 369 |
| Mughul attack on ‘Alī Muhammad Khān | 370 |
| ‘Umdat-ul-Mulk assassinated | 371 |
| Ahmad Shāh Abdālī succeeds Nādir Shāh | 371 |
| Ahmad Shāh invades India | 372 |
| Mughuls repel Ahmad Shāh | 373 |
| Reduction in the size of the Delhi empire | 374 |
| The degeneration of the Mughul army | 375 |
v4.c7.4
CHAPTER XIII
v4.c7.5
THE HYDERĀBĀD STATE (1724–1762)
v4.c7.6
By Sir Jadunath Sarkar.
v4.c7.7
| Nizām-ul-Mulk assumes independence | 377 |
| The Marāthā menace | 378 |
| Nizām-ul-Mulk and Rājā Shāhū | 379 |
| The Nizām supports Shambhūjī of Kolhāpur | 380 |
v4.c7.8
Pālkhed campaign against Bāji Rāo . . . . . . . . 381 Treaty of Shevgāon . . . . . . . . . . 381 Marāthās diverted to north . . . . . . . . 382 Nāsir Jang's rebellion suppressed . . . . . . . 383 The Nawābs of Arcot . . . . . . . . . 384 Death of Āsaf Jāh . . . . . . . . . . 384 Character of Āsaf Jāh . . . . . . . . . 385 Nāsir Jang seizes viceroyalty . . . . . . . . 386 Bussy dominates Hyderābād court . . . . . . . 387 Muzaffar Jang and Salābat Jang . . . . . . . 387 Ghāzī-ud-dīn marches to Deccan . . . . . . . 388 Bussy recovers control over Nizām . . . . . . . 389 The Marāthās defeat Hyderābād forces . . . . . . 390 Nizām ‘Alī deposes Salābat Jang . . . . . . . . 391
Chapter XIV
v4.c8.1
THE RISE OF THE MARĀTHĀ EMPIRE
v4.c8.2
(1707–1761)
v4.c8.3
By H. G. RAWLINSON, C.I.E., M.A., F.R.Hist.S. (Late Indian Educational Service.)
v4.c8.4
Accession of Shāhū . . . . . . . . . . 392 Bālājī Vishvānāth . . . . . . . . . . 393 Bālājī restores order . . . . . . . . . 394 Shivājī's *Swarājya* . . . . . . . . . 395 Bālājī's achievements . . . . . . . . . 396 Bāji Rāo succeeds Bālājī . . . . . . . . 397 The founders of Dhār, Indore and Gwalior . . . . . 398 The Nizām leaves Delhi . . . . . . . . 399 Bāji Rāo defeats the Nizām . . . . . . . . 400 Treaty of Warnā . . . . . . . . . . 401 The Marāthās invade Mālwa . . . . . . . . 402 The Nizām returns to Delhi . . . . . . . . 403 Bāji Rāo fails to annex the Konkan . . . . . . . 404 The Marāthās besiege Bassein . . . . . . . . 405 English secure free trade in the Deccan . . . . . . 406 Death and character of Bāji Rāo . . . . . . . 407 Bālājī Bāji Rāo succeeds . . . . . . . . 407 Raghūjī Bhonsle overruns the Carnatic . . . . . . 408 Character of Shāhū . . . . . . . . . 409 Death of Shāhū and succession of Rām Rājā . . . . . 410 Defeat of the Gāikwār . . . . . . . . . 411 Rām Rājā succeeded by Shāhū II . . . . . . . 411 The Marāthās plunder the Carnatic . . . . . . 412 They defeat and cripple Hyderābād . . . . . . . 413 Organisation of Marāthā government . . . . . . 414 The Marāthās in the North . . . . . . . . 415 Ahmad Shāh Abdālī plunders Delhi and retires . . . . . 416 The Marāthās advance to Lahore . . . . . . . 416 Ahmad Shāh Abdālī returns to India . . . . . . 416 The Bhāo Sāhib takes the field . . . . . . . . 417 The Marāthās occupy Delhi . . . . . . . . 418 Start of the campaign against the Muslims . . . . . . 419 The Marāthā intrenchment near Pānīpat . . . . . . 420 Blockade of the Marāthā camp . . . . . . . . 421
v4.c8.5
The Marāthās issue forth . . . . . . . . . . 422 Battle of Pānīpat . . . . . . . . . . 423 Slaughter of the Marāthās . . . . . . . . . 424 Completeness of the defeat . . . . . . . . . 425 Note on Marāthī literature . . . . . . . . . 426–7
Chapter XV
v4.c9.1
AHMAD SHĀH, ‘ĀLAMGĪR II AND SHĀH ‘ĀLAM
v4.c9.2
By Lt.-Colonel Sir Wolseley Haig.
v4.c9.3
Ahmad Shāh succeeds to the throne . . . . . . . . 428 Offices of state divided by the nobles . . . . . . . 428 Safdar Jang instigates the Bangash Pathāns to attack the Rohillas . . 429 The Bangash defeat Safdar Jang and raid in Oudh . . . . 430 Safdar Jang crushes the Bangash with Marāthā help . . . . 431 Zu-’l-Fiqār Jang in Rājputāna . . . . . . . . 432 Disputed succession to Nizām-ul-Mulk . . . . . . . 433 Third invasion by Ahmad Shāh Abdālī . . . . . . . 433 The Punjab and Multān ceded to Afghānistān . . . . . 434 Disputes between the emperor and Safdar Jang . . . . . 434 Civil war at Delhi . . . . . . . . . . 435 Intizām-ud-Daula becomes minister . . . . . . . 436 Ghāzī-ud-din replaces Intizām-ud-Daula and deposes Ahmad Shāh . 436 ‘Ālamgīr II succeeds Ahmad Shāh . . . . . . . 437 Unsuccessful attempt to recover the Punjab . . . . . . 437 Ahmad Shāh Abdālī sacks Delhi . . . . . . . . 438 Massacre at Muttra . . . . . . . . . . 439 ‘Alī Gauhar escapes from Delhi . . . . . . . . 440 The Marāthās in Bengal . . . . . . . . . 441 ‘Alī Vardī Khān expels the Marāthās . . . . . . . 442 The Marāthās retain Orissa . . . . . . . . 443 ‘Ālamgīr II assassinated. Shāh Jahān III succeeds . . . . 444 The Marāthās occupy the Punjab . . . . . . . 445 Ahmad Shāh Abdālī returns to India . . . . . . . 446 A large Marāthā army reaches Delhi . . . . . . . 447 Battle of Pānīpat . . . . . . . . . . 448 Succession of Shāh ‘Ālam . . . . . . . . 448
v4.c9.4
CHAPTER XVI
v4.c9.5
THE REVENUE SYSTEM OF THE MUGHUL EMPIRE
v4.c9.6
By W. H. Moreland, C.S.I., C.I.E.
v4.c9.7
Local revenues . . . . . . . . . . . 449 Sources of central revenue . . . . . . . . . 450 Preponderance of land revenue . . . . . . . . 450 Description of the agrarian system . . . . . . . 451 The position of the peasant . . . . . . . . 452 The state’s share of produce . . . . . . . . 453 Methods of assessment . . . . . . . . . 453 Arrangements for collection . . . . . . . . 454 The revenue system under the Lodī dynasty . . . . . 456 Sher Shāh’s reorganisation . . . . . . . . 457
v4.c9.8
| | PAGE |
| Assessment under Akbar . . . . . . . . . | 458–60 |
| Assignments under Akbar . . . . . . . . . | 461 |
| Experiments in direct collection . . . . . . . . | 462 |
| Akbar's regulation system . . . . . . . . . | 462–3 |
| Arrangements in the outlying provinces . . . . . . . | 464 |
| Grants of land under Akbar . . . . . . . . | 465 |
| The reign of Jahāngīr . . . . . . . . . | 466 |
| The reign of Shāh Jahān . . . . . . . . . | 467 |
| The assessment of the Deccan . . . . . . . . | 467 |
| Aurangzīb's revenue system . . . . . . . . | 468–70 |
| The decline of agriculture . . . . . . . . | 471 |
| The disappearance of assignments . . . . . . . . | 472 |
| The extension of farming . . . . . . . . . | 473 |
| The formation of dependencies . . . . . . . . | 474 |
v4.c9.9
CHAPTER XVII
v4.c9.10
BURMA (1531–1782) By G. E. Harvey, Indian Civil Service (*retired*).
v4.c9.11
| Arakan and its capitals . . . . . . . . . | 476 |
| Muslim Buddhist kings . . . . . . . . . | 477 |
| Chittagong and Portuguese pirates . . . . . . . | 478 |
| Coronation sacrifices . . . . . . . . . | 479 |
| The Dutch in Arakan. Shāh Shujāʻ . . . . . . . | 480 |
| Mughuls take Chittagong . . . . . . . . | 481 |
| The Toungoo dynasty . . . . . . . . . | 482 |
| Burman Talaing union . . . . . . . . . | 483 |
| Burmese invade Siam . . . . . . . . . | 484 |
| Death of Tabinshwehti . . . . . . . . . | 485 |
| Failure of Smim Htaw's rebellion . . . . . . . | 486 |
| Bayinnaung suppresses funeral sacrifices . . . . . . | 487 |
| Capture of Ayuthia . . . . . . . . . | 488 |
| The Ceylon Tooth . . . . . . . . . | 489 |
| Bayinnaung's administration . . . . . . . . | 490 |
| Contact with outer world . . . . . . . . | 491 |
| Nandabayin's cruelty . . . . . . . . . | 492 |
| Sack of Pegū . . . . . . . . . . | 493 |
| De Brito independent at Syriam . . . . . . . | 494 |
| Defeat and crucifixion of De Brito . . . . . . . | 495 |
| Minredeippa's brief reign . . . . . . . . | 496 |
| Compilation of law books . . . . . . . . | 497 |
| Devastation by Chinese marauders . . . . . . . | 498 |
| Yung-li, last of the Ming emperors . . . . . . . | 499 |
| Foreign rivals in Mergui . . . . . . . . | 500 |
| Traders in Syriam . . . . . . . . . | 501 |
| Raids from Manipur . . . . . . . . . | 502 |
| Ava taken by the Talaings . . . . . . . . | 503 |
| The Alaungpaya dynasty . . . . . . . . | 504 |
| Alaungpaya captures Rangoon . . . . . . . | 505 |
| French ships taken at Syriam . . . . . . . | 506 |
| Talaings annihilated . . . . . . . . . | 507 |
| Pegū stormed . . . . . . . . . . | 508 |
| Massacre at Negrais . . . . . . . . . | 509 |
| Invasion of Siam . . . . . . . . . | 510 |
| Death of Alaungpaya . . . . . . . . . | 511 |
v4.c9.12
| | | PAGE |
| Manipur raided | . . . . . . . . | 512 |
| Āva reoccupied | . . . . . . . . | 513 |
| Invasion of Siam | . . . . . . . . | 514 |
| Sixth siege of Ayuthia | . . . . . . . . | 515 |
| Chinese invasion of Burma | . . . . . . . . | 516 |
| Chinese repulsed and peace made | . . . . . . . . | 517 |
| Manipur occupied | . . . . . . . . | 518 |
| Burmese triumphs | . . . . . . . . | 519 |
| Siamese expel Burmese from Siam | . . . . . . . . | 520 |
| Singu murdered | . . . . . . . . | 521 |
| Bodawpaya succeeds | . . . . . . . . | 522 |
Chapter XVIII
v4.c10.1
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
v4.c10.2
By Percy Brown, A.R.C.A., F.R.A.S.B., Secretary and Curator, Victoria Memorial Hall, Calcutta, formerly Principal of the Government School of Art and Keeper of the Government Art Gallery, Calcutta.
v4.c10.3
| Neglected cities of northern India | . . . . . . . | 523 |
| Bābur's new buildings | . . . . . . . | 524 |
| Humāyūn's capital at Delhi | . . . . . . . | 525 |
| Conclusion of the Sayyid-Afghān style | . . . . . . . | 526 |
| Sher Shāh's tomb at Sasarām | . . . . . . . | 527 |
| Other tombs of the Sūrs | . . . . . . . | 528 |
| The Purānā Qil'a | . . . . . . . | 529 |
| The Qil'a-i-Kuhna Masjid | . . . . . . . | 530 |
| Tombs of Adham Khān and Humāyūn | . . . . . . . | 532 |
| Bridge at Jaunpur | . . . . . . . | 535 |
| Fort at Āgra | . . . . . . . | 536 |
| Palaces in Āgra fort | . . . . . . . | 537 |
| Fort at Lahore | . . . . . . . | 538 |
| Fathpur Sīkrī | . . . . . . . | 539 |
| Plan of Fathpur Sīkrī | . . . . . . . | 540 |
| Jodh Bāī's palace | . . . . . . . | 541 |
| Houses of Miriam and the Turkish Sultāna | . . . . . . . | 542 |
| The Dīwān-i-Khāss | . . . . . . . | 543 |
| The Jāmi' Masjid | . . . . . . . | 543 |
| Buland Darwāza | . . . . . . . | 545 |
| Tomb of Salīm Chishtī | . . . . . . . | 546 |
| Temples at Brindāban | . . . . . . . | 547 |
| Palaces in Rājputāna | . . . . . . . | 548 |
| Mughul gardens | . . . . . . . | 549 |
| Akbar's tomb | . . . . . . . | 550 |
| Jahāngīr's tomb | . . . . . . . | 551 |
| Tombs of Khān Khānān and I'timād-ud-Daula | . . . . . . . | 552 |
| Buildings in white marble | . . . . . . . | 553 |
| Shāh Jahān's palaces and mosques | . . . . . . . | 554 |
| Delhi fort | . . . . . . . | 555 |
| Fountains and gardens at Delhi | . . . . . . . | 557 |
| Dīwān-i-'Ām and Jāmi' Masjid | . . . . . . . | 558 |
| Mosques at Delhi and Āgra | . . . . . . . | 559 |
| Tile decoration | . . . . . . . | 559 |
| Wazīr Khān's Mosque, Lahore | . . . . . . . | 561 |
| The Tāj Mahall | . . . . . . . | 561 |
v4.c10.4
Its architectural technique . . . . . . . . 565 Aurangzīb's neglect of architecture . . . . . . . 566 Aurangābād . . . . . . . . . . 567 Mosque at Benares; tomb of Safdar Jang . . . . . . 568 Sind . . . . . . . . . . . 569 Deccan style at Bījāpur . . . . . . . . 570 The Gol Gumbaz . . . . . . . . . 571 The Jāmi‘ Masjid, Bījāpur . . . . . . . . 573 Khāndesh . . . . . . . . . . 575
v4.c10.5
LIST OF BIBLIOGRAPHIES
v4.c10.6
General . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Numismatic . . . . . . . . . . 577 Chapter I . . . . . . . . . . 577 Chapter II . . . . . . . . . . 578 Chapter III . . . . . . . . . . 578 Chapters IV and V . . . . . . . . . 579 Chapter VI . . . . . . . . . . 580 Chapter VII . . . . . . . . . . 581 Chapters VIII and X . . . . . . . . . 582 Chapter IX . . . . . . . . . . 586 Chapter XI . . . . . . . . . . 587 Chapter XII . . . . . . . . . . 588 Chapter XIII . . . . . . . . . . 588 Chapter XIV . . . . . . . . . . 590 Chapter XV . . . . . . . . . . 592 Chapter XVI . . . . . . . . . . 592 Chapter XVII . . . . . . . . . . 593 Chapter XVIII . . . . . . . . . . 596
v4.c10.7
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES
v4.c10.8
India . . . . . . . . . . . 599 Burma . . . . . . . . . . . 611
v4.c10.9
DYNASTIC LISTS AND GENEALOGICAL TABLES
v4.c10.10
1\. The Mughul emperors of India . . . . . . . 614–15 2\. The Sūr dynasty . . . . . . . . . 616–17 3\. The Marāthās . . . . . . . . . 618–19 4\. The Peshwās . . . . . . . . . 620 5\. The Nawābs of Oudh . . . . . . . . 621 6\. The Nizāms of Hyderābād . . . . . . . 622 7\. The Toungoo dynasty in Burma . . . . . . . 623
v4.c10.11
LIST OF MAPS
v4.c10.12
1\. India in 1525 . . . . . . . . *facing p.* 1 2\. India in 1605 . . . . . . . . 155 3\. India in 1707 . . . . . . . . 318 4\. India in 1761 . . . . . . . . 388 5\. Burma . . . . . . . . . . 477 6\. India, Afghānistān and Transoxiana . . . . . *at end of book*
Plates
v4.c11.1
(at end of book)
v4.c11.2
*(For acknowledgments see also p. vii of Preface.)*
v4.c11.3
| Plate | Fig. | |
| I. | 1. | Delhi, Jamālī Masjid (*c.* 1530) |
| | 2. | Delhi, Tomb of ‘Īsā Khān (1547) |
| II. | 3. | Delhi, Tomb of Adham Khān (dec. 1561) |
| | 4. | Sasarām, Tomb of Hasan Khān Sūr (*c.* 1540) |
| III. | 5. | Sasarām, Tomb of Sher Shāh Sūr (*c.* 1545) |
| | 6. | Sasarām, Northern entrance to the Tomb of Sher Shāh Sūr |
| IV. | 7. | Delhi, Main entrance to the Purāna Qil‘a (*c.* 1545) |
| | 8. | Delhi, Qil‘a-i-Kuhna Masjid in the Purāna Qil‘a (*c.* 1545) |
| V. | 9. | Delhi, *Mihrāb* in the Qil‘a-i-Kuhna Masjid |
| | 10. | Delhi, Pendentive in the Qil‘a-i-Kuhna Masjid |
| VI. | 11. | Delhi, Entrance gateway to Khair-ul-manāzil (*c.* 1560) |
| | 12. | Delhi, Tomb of the Emperor Humāyūn (1564) |
| VII. | 13. | Delhi, Tomb of Atga Khān (dec. 1561) |
| VIII. | 14. | Jaunpur, Bridge over river Gumtī (1564–1568) |
| | 15. | Gwalior, Tomb of Muhammad Ghaus (*c.* 1564) |
| IX. | 16. | Gwalior, Perforated stone screen in tomb of Muhammad Ghaus |
| X. | 17. | Āgra Fort |
| | 18. | Āgra Fort, Delhi Gate (1566) |
| XI. | 19. | Āgra Fort, Jahāngīrī Mahall, east façade |
| | 20. | Āgra Fort, Jahāngīrī Mahall, detail of east façade |
| XII. | 21. | Āgra Fort, Jahāngīrī Mahall, brackets in courtyard |
| | 22. | Āgra Fort, Jahāngīrī Mahall, interior of northern hall |
| XIII. | 23. | Lahore, Wooden doorway of a house (sixteenth century?) |
| XIV. | 24. | Mughul Miniature Painting, probably depicting the construction of the Elephant Gateway (*Hāthī Pol*) of Āgra Fort (painted *c.* 1580). By permission of the Director, Victoria and Albert Museum |
| XV. | 25. | Mughul Miniature Painting, depicting building under construction (painted *c.* 1580). By permission of the Director, Victoria and Albert Museum |
| XVI. | 26. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Entrance gateway to Palace of Jodh Bāī (*c.* 1572) |
| | 27. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Jodh Bāī’s Palace, west side of courtyard |
| XVII. | 28. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Jodh Bāī’s Palace, west side of courtyard |
| | 29. | Fathpur Sīkrī, House of Miriam |
| XVIII. | 30. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Jodh Bāī’s Palace, interior of northern hall |
| | 31. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Rājā Bīrbal’s House, detail of carved stone brackets, exterior |
| XIX. | 32. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Rājā Bīrbal’s House |
| | 33. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Sultāna’s House |
| XX. | 34. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Sultāna’s House, carved sandstone panel of dado in interior |
| | 35. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Sultāna’s House, carved sandstone detail of exterior |
| XXI. | 36. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Dīwān-i-Khāss, interior |
| XXII. | 37. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Dīwān-i-Khāss |
| | 38. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Jāmi‘ Masjid, façade (finished 1571) |
| XXIII. | 39. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Jāmi‘ Masjid, central *mihrāb* |
| | 40. | Fathpur Sīkrī, interior showing brackets |
| XXIV. | 41. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Buland Darwāza, exterior (1575–1576) |
| | 42. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Buland Darwāza, interior |
v4.c11.4
| Plate | Fig. | |
| XXV. | 43. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Tomb of Shaikh Salīm Chishtī |
| | 44. | Fathpur Sīkrī, Tomb of Shaikh Salīm Chishtī, portico |
| XXVI. | 45. | Brindāban near Muttra, Temple of Govind Deo (1590) |
| | 46. | Brindāban, Temple of Govind Deo, detail of arcades |
| XXVII. | 47. | Jaipur, Amber, Courtyard of Durbar Hall |
| XXVIII. | 48. | Sikandra, Tomb of Akbar (finished 1612–1613) |
| | 49. | Sikandra, Tomb of Akbar, entrance gateway |
| XXIX. | 50. | Sikandra, Tomb of Akbar, inlaid stonework on entrance gateway |
| | 51. | Sikandra, Tomb of Akbar, entrance to tomb chamber |
| XXX. | 52. | Sikandra, Tomb of Akbar, upper storey |
| | 53. | Āgra, Tomb of I‘timād-ud-Daula (finished 1628) |
| XXXI. | 54. | Āgra, Tomb of I‘timād-ud-Daula, detail of inlay |
| XXXII. | 55. | Āgra, Tomb of I‘timād-ud-Daula, river entrance gateway |
| | 56. | Āgra, Tomb of I‘timād-ud-Daula, interior of upper storey |
| XXXIII. | 57. | Lahore, Tomb of the Emperor Jahāngīr at Shāhdara (1627) |
| XXXIV. | 58. | Delhi, Tomb of Khān Khānān (1627) |
| | 59. | Āgra Fort, Dīwān-i-Khāss |
| XXXV. | 60. | Āgra Fort, the Khāss Mahall |
| XXXVI. | 61. | Āgra Fort, Musamman Burj |
| | 62. | Āgra Fort, Motī Masjid, interior |
| XXXVII. | 63. | Āgra Fort, Musamman Burj, interior |
| | 64. | Āgra Fort, Motī Masjid, exterior |
| XXXVIII. | 65. | Lahore Fort, the Shīsh Mahall |
| | 66. | Lahore, Mosque of Wazīr Khān (1634) |
| XXXIX. | 67. | Delhi Fort, “The Citadel of the Great Moghul” (1639–1648). *Copyright of the Archaeological Survey of India* |
| XL. | 68. | Delhi Fort, the Dīwān-i-‘Ām, the Throne |
| XLI. | 69. | Delhi Fort, the Dīwān-i-‘Ām |
| | 70. | Delhi Fort, the Dīwān-i-Khāss |
| XLII. | 71. | Delhi Fort, the Dīwān-i-Khāss, interior |
| XLIII. | 72. | Delhi Fort, the Rang Mahall |
| | 73. | Delhi Fort, Pearl Mosque |
| XLIV. | 74. | Delhi Fort, Screen “Scales of Justice” in *Rang Mahall* |
| XLV. | 75. | Delhi Fort, interior of Pearl Mosque |
| | 76. | Delhi, Jāmi‘ Masjid (1644–1658) |
| XLVI. | 77. | Delhi, Jāmi‘ Masjid, from courtyard |
| | 78. | Delhi, Jāmi‘ Masjid, *mihrāb* |
| XLVII. | 79. | Āgra, Jāmi‘ Masjid (1648) |
| XLVIII. | 80. | Āgra, Jāmi‘ Masjid, from courtyard |
| | 81. | Āgra, Entrance gateway to Tāj Mahall |
| XLIX. | 82. | Āgra, Tāj Mahall (begun 1632) |
| L. | 83. | Āgra, Tāj Mahall, from the river |
| LI. | 84. | Āgra, Mosque at Tāj Mahall |
| | 85. | Āgra, Tāj Mahall, interior |
| LII. | 86. | Aurangābād, Tomb of Rābi‘a-ud-Daurāni (*c.* 1679) |
| | 87. | Lahore, Jāmi‘ Masjid (Bādshāhī Masjid, 1674) |
| LIII. | 88. | Tatta, Sind, Tomb of ‘Īsā Tarkhān (*c.* 1640) |
| | 89. | Tatta, Sind, Tomb of ‘Īsā Tarkhān, detail of arcade |
| LIV. | 90. | Tatta, Sind, Jāmi‘ Masjid (begun 1644) |
| | 91. | Bījāpur, Jāmi‘ Masjid (1576) |
| LV. | 92. | Bījāpur, Jāmi‘ Masjid, interior |
| | 93. | Bījāpur, Tomb of Sultān Muhammad (dec. 1656), the “Gol Gumbaz” |
| LVI. | 94. | Bījāpur, the Ibrāhīm Rauza, the Tomb (1627) |
| | 95. | Bījāpur, the Ibrāhīm Rauza, the Mosque |
| LVII. | 96. | Bījāpur, the Mihtar Mahall (*c.* 1620) |
| LVIII. | 97. | Burhānpur, Bībī-kī-Masjid (*c.* 1590) |
| | 98. | Delhi, Tomb of Nawāb Safdar Jang (dec. 1754) |
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