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Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c9: Section III: Economic Aspects

Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c9

Language
English

Contents

Section III: Economic Aspects

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CHAPTER I PRODUCTION

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CHAPTER II DISTRIBUTION

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CHAPTER III EXCHANGE

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CHAPTER IV CONSUMPTION

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The first of these, the *Gospel of the Hebrews*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The *Gospel of the Egyptians* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The *Gospel of Peter* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so.

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These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete.

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The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation.

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By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church.

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The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations.

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Economic factors have been the main guiding factors in the history of the world from time immemorial. Unfortunately, the material at our disposal representing the economic conditions in India is fragmentary and hence it is not possible to present a systematic account of every fact relating to the economic life of the ancient Indian people. Nevertheless, whatever meagre account we could gather is given here in the hope it will prove valuable.

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The first of these, the *Gospel of the Hebrews*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The *Gospel of the Egyptians* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The *Gospel of Peter* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so.

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These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete.

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The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation.

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By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church.

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The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations.

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PRODUCTION

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LAND

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Every activity which results in creation of wealth is to be regarded as productive. The productive agents of material wealth are Land, Labour, Capital and Organisation, which are called Factors of Production in Economics.

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The rural economy of India was based chiefly on a system of village communities of landowners or what is known as peasant proprietorship.¹ The common occupation of the villagers was agriculture or farming.

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¹ Rhys Davids, *Cambridge History of India*, Vol. 1, p. 198.

Agriculture. Methods of Ploughing

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Around the *gāma* lay its *khetta* or pastures, and its woodland or uncleared jungle. *Khetta* or agricultural land is considered among ten kinds of external possessions, the rest being buildings, gold etc, seeds of grains, collection of wood-fuel and grass, friends and relatives, conveyance, furniture such as bed, sofa etc., male and female slaves and utensils.² A *khetta* is divided into *setu* and *ketu*; the former being irrigated by Persian wheels (*arahatta*) etc., and the latter by rainfall.³ Various methods of irrigation were adopted in different countries. For example, in the country of Lāṭa the fields received their moisture from rainfall, in Sindhu from rivers, in Draviḍa from ponds, in Uttarāpatha from wells and in Dimbharelaka from floods.⁴

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² Brh. Bha., 1. 825.

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³ *ibid*., 1. 826.

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⁴ *ibid*., 1. 1239.

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Agriculture was carried on by ploughing. It is said that p'oughing (*kisikamma*) being done at the right time yields plenty of fruit.⁵ The *Bṛhatkalpa Bhāṣya* refers to the festival in honour of the ploughing deity (*Sītā-janna*).⁶ *Phoḍakamma* is mentioned as a ploughman's profession dealing in ploughing the field.⁷ In a prosperous country the lands were ploughed with hundreds and thousands of ploughshares, and sugar-cane, barley and rice were cultivated by shrewd (*pannatta*) farmers (*karisaya*).⁸ We read of the *gāhavai* Ānanda who limited the cultivable land to five hundred ploughshares, each one ploughing one hundred acres (niyattana) of land.⁹ Three types of ploughshares are mentioned, viz., *hala*, *kuliya* and *nangala*;¹⁰ spade (*kudāla*) was known.¹¹ The fields were guarded by fences.¹² *Samūha* is mentioned as a place situated in a mountain or any other place of safety where the farmers used to store their corn.¹³

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⁵ Uttarā. Ṭī., 1 p 10a.

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⁶ 3. 3647. Cf the Grhva Sūtras (e g Gobhila, IV 4 281, S B L vol xxx) where the goddess Sītā is the rustic deity of the furrows and sacrifice may be offered to her anywhere but preferably on a field of rice or barley (V M Apte, *Social and Religious Life in the Grhya Sūtras*, X, p. 129) In the *Mahābhārata* (VII, 105 19) Sītā is a goddess of harvest. The legend of the birth of Sītā is mentioned in the *Rāmāyaṇa* (I. 66 14f), and it is by furrowing the earth with a plough that Janaka gives birth to Sītā (Sylvan Levi, *Pre Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India*, pp. 8-15).

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⁷ Uvā., 1, p. 11.

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⁸ Ovā., 1, p. 2; Āva. Ṭī., (Harı.), 947, p. 426a.

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⁹ Uvā., 1, p. 7. *Niyattana* is mentioned by Baudhāyana; it was an area of land sufficient to support one man from its produce, (S. K Das, *The Economic History of Ancient Ind.*, p. 190).

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¹⁰ Ācā., ā p 81

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¹¹ Uvā., 2 p. 23.

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¹² *Abhidhānārājendrakosa*, under 'Nigara'.

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¹³ Brh. Bhā., 1. 1092

Field-Crops

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The predominant grain harvest was that of rice of different varieties. *Kalamaśāli*, a variety of rice, which was cultivated in the eastern part of India, is referred to;¹⁴ *raktasāli*, *mahāsāli* and *gandhasāli* are mentioned as other varieties.¹⁵ The paddy was sown during the rains, and where ripe, the crops were harvested with newly sharpened sickles (*navapajjana chim asiehim*), thrashed, winnowed and then taken to the granary where they were filled in new jars which were sealed and kept in a corner.¹⁶

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¹⁴ Uvā., 1, p. 8.. cf *Theragāthā* (VS 208) where corn fields of Magadha are described a rich

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¹⁵ Brh Bhā., 2 3301 3307 1. also see *Caraka*, ch 27 p 734

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¹⁶ Āyā., 7. p. 86.

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The piles of the rings (*valaya*) were made of straws and leaves known as *kadapalla* and *tanapalla*, which served as receptacles for grains. The inside floor space was coated with cow-dung.¹⁷ The round heap of grains was called *puñja*; if it was slightly oblong, it was called *rāsi*; a heap of grains was pressed close to the wall; besmeared with ashes (*lanchita*); sealed with cow-dung and kept in the required places, screening it with a screen of straw and bamboos.¹⁸ In the rainy searon the grains were stored in a granary made of earth (*kottha*), of straw and bamboos (*palla*), a granary standing on pillars (*mañca*), the upper storey of the house (*mālā*), covered with a lid coated with cow-dung (*olitta*), coated with mud all over (*litta*), closed (*pihita*), sealed with earthen seals (*muddiya*) by making lines etc. (*lanchiya*).¹⁹ *Kumbhī*, *karabhī*,²⁰ *pallaga*,²¹ *muttoli*, *mukha*, *idura*, *alindaa* and *ocāra* (*apacārī*)²² are mentioned as other forms of storage In *gañjasālā* various kinds of corns were pounded.²³ A wooden mortar (*udūkhala*) for cleansing rice and a threshing floor (*khalaya*) were known.²⁴ Then mention is made of a cattle-feeding-basket (*gokilañja*) and winnowing sieve (*suppahattara*).²⁵

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¹⁷ Brh. Bhā., 2 3298.

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¹⁸ Ibid 2. 3311 f.

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¹⁹ Brh Sū., 2 3 and Brh 2 3301-9

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²⁰ Brh. Sū., 2 10. Also mentioned in the Rāmāyaṇa, II 91 71

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²¹ Ā cā. Ṭī., (Hari.) p 75 a *Mutoli* is also mentioned in the *Majjhima* I p 57

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²² Anu. Sū. 131.

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²³ Nisī. Cū., 9, p 511

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²⁴ Vya. Bhā., 10 28, Sūy., 4. 2. 12.

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²⁵ Uvā., 2, p. 23, Sūy., 4 7, 12.

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Seventeen kinds of grains are mentioned :—rice (*vrīhi*), barley (*yava*), *masūra* (*Ervum Hirsutum*), wheat (*godhūma*), *mudga* (*Phraseolus*), sesame (*tila*), gram (*canaka*), *anu* (*Panicum Miliaceum*), *priyaṅgu* (panic seeds), *kodrava*, (*Paspalum Scrobiculatum*), *akusthaka* (mod. *kuttu*), rice (*śāli*),²⁶ a pulse (*āḍhaki*), *kalaya* (leguminous seeds), *kulattha* (*Dolichos Uniflorus*) and *sana* (*Linum Usitatissimum*).²⁷ Amongst other field grain crops are mentioned *māsa*, (*Phraseolus Radialus*), *mpphava*,²⁸ *ālisandaga*,²⁹ *saḍina*, *palimanthaka*,³⁰ *atasī* (linseed), *kusumba* (safflower), *kaṅgu* (millet), *rālaga*, (the resin of *Shorea Rubusta*), *tuvarī* (*tuvar* in Hindi), *koḍusā* (or *kodrava*) and mustard (*sarṣava*).³¹ The storers of crores and crores of kumbhas of these grains in their granary were called *nāyatikas*.³²

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²⁶ *Śāli* was a high quality of rice, cf *Piṇḍa Nir*, 162-5

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²⁷ *Bṛh Bhā*, 1 828, *Sūtra*, 2 1, also *Paṇṇa* 1 23-40 Instead of *anu*, *priyaṅgu*, *akusthaka*, *āḍhaki* and *kalāya* the *Vyavahāra Bhā* (1, p 132) gives *rālaga*, *māsa ravala*, *tuvar* and *niṣpāva*, (also *Das* cu p 212, cf *Arthaśāstra* p 128f, also *Milindapañha*, p 267, *Mārkaṇḍeya* p. 244)

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²⁸ It is also called *ralla* (a kind of wheat, Monier Williams *Sanskrit-English Dictionary*) and it produced intoxication (*Bṛh Bhā*, 5 6049) Jacobi renders it as *Dolichos Sinensis*, *Jain Sūtras*, xlv, p 374

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²⁹ According to Weber it was a grain coming from Alexandria, and hence points to commercial intercourse with that country, *Sacred Literature of the Jains*, p 38.

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³⁰ *Bhag* 21. 2

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³¹ *ibid*, 21 3, also *Uttrā Ṭī* 3 p 58a *Koḍu.aka* is mentioned as a best corn in the *Mahābhārata* (III 193 19)

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³² *Vya. Bhā* 1, p 131a

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Among the spices mention is made of fresh ginger (*śuṅgavera*),³³ dry ginger (*suntha*), cloves (*lavaṅga*), turmeric (*haridrā*), cumin (*vesana*, com. *jīraka*),³⁴ pepper (*marīca*), *pippala* (long pepper) and mustard (*sarṣavatha*).³⁵

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³³ *Bhag* 8 3, *Paṇṇa*., 1 23 31, 43-4

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³⁴ *Piṇḍa Nir*, 54

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³⁵ *Ācā*. II, 1 8 268.

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Sugar-cane (*ucchu*) seems to have been a common crop. A sugar-cane store-house (*ucchughara*) is mentioned in Dasapura³⁶ The sugar-cane press (*mahājanta. kolluka*)³⁷ is also mentioned. There were sheds for pressing sugar-cane (*jantāsālā*).³⁸ *Jantapilana* was a profession that dealt in crushing sugar-cane, sesamum and other articles by machines³⁹ Puṇḍravardhana was noted for sugar-cane's crop.⁴⁰ Three varieties of sugar are mentioned, viz., *maccandikā*, *pupphottara* and *paumuttara*⁴¹ Gourds were grown⁴² and were used by the ascetics⁴³.

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³⁶ *Uttarā Ṭī* 2, p 23

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³⁷ *Uttarā Sū* 19 53, *Bṛh Bhā* pi 575

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³⁸ *Vya Bhā* 10 484

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³⁹ *Uvā* 1, r. 11, *Jambu Ṭī* 3, p 193a

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⁴⁰ *Taṇḍula Ṭī*, p. 2 a In Bengal there were two kinds of sugar-cane, the pale-yellow or *puṇḍra* and the dark purple or black called *kājali* or *kajoli* The former gave its name to the province of Puṇḍadeśa to the east of the Ganges, and latter to Kajolaka, or the province to the west of the Ganges, *Arch Survey of India* (*Report* 1879-80, Bihar and Bengal), Vol XV, 1882, p 28

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⁴¹ *Nāyā*, 17, p 203 *Paṇṇa Sū* 17 227 *Maṭsyaṇḍikā* and *khaṇḍaśarkarā* are mentioned, in the *Arthaśāstra* (p 100) and the *Caraka*, ch 27, p 795, and are rendered as granulated sugar and sugar-candy respectively *Puṣpottara* is mentioned in the *Vaidyakaśabda Sindhu* and is rendered by *Puṣpaśarkarā*, which is perhaps the same as '*phūlsākar*' in Gujarati. *Padmottara* probably was prepared from lotus (Bechardas, *Bhag.āri Mahāvīra ni dharmakathāo*, p. 249f) It is translated as *Carthamus Tinctorius* by Monier Williams,

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⁴² *Uttarā Ṭī*, 5, p 103.

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⁴³ *Bṛh. Bhā.*, 1 2886.

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Among fibre-yielding plants cotton (*kappāsa*) was the most important⁴⁴ Among other kinds of fabrics silk, wool (*unniya*), linen (*khoma*) and hemp (*sana*) may be mentioned.⁴⁵ *Sālī* or *sālmali* trees which yielded a silky fibre were known.⁴⁶

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⁴⁴ Cf *Uttarā Ṭī* 4 p 78a

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⁴⁵ See *infra*, chapter on Dress

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⁴⁶ *Panna* 1 23 30, *Uttarā*, 10 52, *Sūya*, 6 18.

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Probably indigo (*gulya*)⁴⁷ and such other chemical dyes were produced; the mention of a variety of colours⁴⁸ leads us to believe in their existence.

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⁴⁷ *Nāyā*, 1, p 10

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⁴⁸ *Kiṇha*, *nīla*, *lohiya* *haladda* and *sukilla* are mentioned (*Rāya*, 3, p 20)

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Betel (*tambola*)⁴⁹ and arecca-nut (*pūyaphli*)⁵⁰ were known. A large number of vegetables were grown Brinjal, cucumber, radish, *pālanka* (mod *pālak*), karella (mod. *karelā*), tuber roots (*āluga*), water-nuts (*śṛṅgātaka*, mod. *siṅghodā*), onion, garlic⁵¹ and gourd⁵² may be mentioned Vegetable-gardens (*kaccha*) were known where radish, cucumber etc., were grown⁵³.

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⁴⁹ *Uvā*, 1, p 9

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⁵⁰ *Panna*, 1. 23 35

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⁵¹ *ibid*, 1 23 18-9, 26ff, 37-8, 43ff, *Uttarā* *Sū*, 36 90 ff

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⁵² *Nāyā*, 10, p 163

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⁵³ *Ācā* II 3 3 350

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Despite these precautions, famines occured mainly on account of scarcity of rain We have referred to a long famine which broke out in Pāṭaliputta during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. Uttarāpatha was visited by another famine during the time of Vairasāmi⁵⁴ Still another famine is mentioned in Dakkhināvaha which is said to have lasted for a long time.⁵⁵ The *Vyavahāra Bhāṣya* preserves a tradition of still another famine in Kosala when a certain *śrāvaka*, who had hoarded plenty of grain, did not allow the five hundred Jain monks to leave the country during the famine Later on, however, when the prices of grain went up he sold his grain and the *sādhus* for want of food committed suicide and were devoured by vultures⁵⁶ During famine people even sold their children⁵⁷

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⁵⁴ *Ava* *cū*, p 396

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⁵⁵ *ibid*, p 404

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⁵⁶ *Vya* *Bhā*, 10 557-60

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⁵⁷ *Mahā* *Ni*, p 28

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The failure of crops or scarcity of food was also due to floods which caused severe distress to the people. The *Titthogāli* gives a graphic description of the flood in Pāṭaliputta which created havoc.⁵⁸ The flood in Kāṅcanapura is recorded in the *Vyavahāra Bhāṣya*⁵⁹. The destruction of Śrāvasti due to frequent overflowing of Acirāvatī is mentioned⁶⁰.

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⁵⁸ Kalyan Vijaya Vīra Nirvāṇa, p 42. ff

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⁵⁹ 10. 450

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⁶⁰ See *infra*, Section V under Kuṇālā.

Horticulture

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Horticulture was in a much developed state We get descriptions of gardens and parks (*ārāma: uyyāna· niyāna*)⁶¹ and a large variety of garden-produce both fruits and flowers; almost every big city preserved one or more gardens Various kinds of creepers (*layā : vallī*) are mentioned; the chief amongst them being *pauma, nāga, asoga, campaga, cūya, rāsantī, aimuttaya, kunda* and *sāma*⁶² Among flowers most important being *navamālikā, korantaka, bandhujīvaka, kaṇera, jāti, mogara, yūthikā, mallikā, vāsanti, mṛgadantikā, campaka, kunda* and others.⁶³

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⁶¹ See *Bhag, Ti*, 6 7, *Rāya Ti Sū.*, 1, p 5, *Bṛh Bhā Vṛ*, 4, 4522; 1. 3170f; *Aṇu cū.*, p. 53 *Nisi cū*, 8, p 494

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⁶² *Rāya. Sū*, 3, p 18, *Nāyā* 1, p 10

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⁶³ *Paṇṇa*, 1 23 23-5 For the flower and plants see *Rāmāyaṇa*, II. 94. 8ff; also S. K. Das, op. cit pp 104f, 206-7

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Among fruits mention may be made of mango, fig, plaintain, date, wood-apple, citron, bread-fruit, pomegranate, grapes, cocoanut, and others⁶⁴. Mango-groves consisting of one thousand mango trees were also known.⁶⁵

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⁶⁴ *Paṇṇa*. 1, 23 12-7, *Ācā* II, 1 8 266

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⁶⁵ *Utā* 7, p. 47 for similar references in the *Jātakas* see S K Das, op. cit., p 207.f.

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Koṭṭaka was a drying place for fruits, people used to gather fruits from jungles and store them at this place; they carried them in waggons, bundles etc. to cities for sale.⁶⁶ Four methods of ripening fruits are mentioned. Some fruits such as mango etc. were ripened by covering them with husk or straw (*indhana*). *Tiṇḍuka* (a fruit of the ebony tree) and other fruits were ripened by subjecting them to a heating process. The process was that first a hollow was made in which the cow-dung fire was lit; around this other hollows were made which were filled with raw fruits. Those hollows were connected with the central hollow by means of holes and thus the fruits ripened by the heat of the fire (*dhūma*). Then cucumber (*cibhaṭa*) and citron (*bījapūra*) etc. ripened by mixing them with ripe fruits (*gandha*) Lastly, the fruits ripened in their natural way on trees (*vaccha*).⁶⁷

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⁶⁶ *Bṛh Bhā* 1 872

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⁶⁷ *ibid.*, 1. 8411

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It is said that the people of Koṅkaṇa were fond of fruits and flowers and they maintained themselves by selling them.⁶⁸ Flower-houses were made during festivals⁶⁹

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⁶⁸ *ibid.*, 1. 1239

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⁶⁹ *Nāyā*, 8, pp. 93, 95, 103.

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Among the miscellaneous products mention may be made of saffron (*kumkuma*), camphor (*kappūra*), cloves (*lavaṅga*), lac, sandal,⁷⁰ honey (*mahu*)⁷¹ and others.

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⁷⁰ *ibid.*, 1, pp 3, 10

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⁷¹ Three varieties of honey are mentioned, viz *macchiya, kuṭṭiya* and *bhāmara* (*Āva, cū*, II, p. 319); also see *Caraka* ch. 27, p. 796.

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Then we have waste lands which may be classified into cremation or burial grounds, forests and pastures, mining and river tracts.

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The pasture grounds (*daviya*)⁷² were very useful where herds of cattle and goats were grazed. *Davaggi* is mentioned as a profession that dealt in burning grass and protecting the fields.⁷³ The cowherds (*govālaka*) and shepherds (*ajāpāla: chāgalīya*) were employed, who led the herds to these grounds for grazing. We hear of a shepherd who was very good at shooting and used to make holes in the leaves of a banyan tree with his tiny bow (*dhanuhiȳā*).⁷⁴

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⁷² *Ācā.* II, 3. 2. 350.

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⁷³ *Uvā.*, 1, p 11.

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⁷⁴ *Uttarā.* *Tī.* 5, p. 103.

Rearing of Live Stock and Dairy Farming

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Cattle were a highly esteemed form of wealth in ancient India, and cows, buffaloes, oxen and sheep were included among the precious possessions of a king.⁷⁵ *Vaya* (*vraja*) also known as *sangilla*⁷⁶, or a herd of cattle is mentioned; each *vraja* consisting of ten thousand cows⁷⁷ It is said that king Karakandu was very fond of the herds of cattle (*gokula*) and possessed a number of herds of kine.⁷⁸

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⁷⁵ *Ovā* *Sū.*, 6, also *Āva* *Tī.* (Hari), p 128 For the list of cattle see *Paṇṇa* 1 34

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⁷⁶ *Vya* *Bhā* 2. 23.

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⁷⁷ *Upā.*, 1, p 6, also *Brh* *Bhā*, 3 4268

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⁷⁸ *Uttarā.* *Tī.*, 9, p. 134a.

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Breeding and rearing of cattle was an essential concern of the people. The *Ābhīras* (mod. *Ahīr*), who tended the cows, are mentioned. We are told of an *Ābhīra* woman of Mathurā, who used to supply milk and curds to a perfumer. Once upon a time at the wedding of her son she invited the perfumer and his wife. The perfumer could not attend the ceremony in person but he sent various clothes and ornaments for the bride and the bridegroom as a gift. The *Ābhīras* were much pleased at this and in return they presented two strong-bodied bull-calves to the perfumer⁷⁹

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⁷⁹ *Āva.* *Nir.*, 471; *Āva* *cū*, p 280 f.

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Cattle were supplied with necessary grass and water (*taṇapāṇīya*) There were large cow-pens (*gomaṇḍava*) where the herds of cows, bulls and calves were kept. A cattle-lifter (*kūḍaggāha*) is mentioned, who used to go to the cow-pen and rob the cattle at night.⁸⁰ Quarrels among cowherds are frequently referred to. The cows of various colours such as black, blue, red, white, and brindled were known; cows were often attacked and devoured by lions and tigers in the jungle.⁸¹

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⁸⁰ *Vivā.* 2, p. 14 f.

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⁸¹ *Āva.* *cū.*, p. 44.

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Dairy farming was in an advanced state and the supply of milk and its four products (*gorasa*), viz., curds, butter-milk, butter and ghee, was abundant and so people could get highly nutritious food. The milk of cow, buffalo, camel, goat and sheep is mentioned.⁸² *Khīraghara* was known as a place where products of milk were available in plenty.⁸³ The cattle were also utilised for the production of hide, bones, ivory nails and hair.⁸⁴ Slaughter houses (sūnā) were known. A slaughter house is mentioned where five hundred buffaloes were slaughtered every day.⁸⁵

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⁸² *Ibid.* II, p 319.

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⁸³ *Nisī.* *cū.*, 9, p. 511.

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⁸⁴ Piṇḍa. 50

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⁸⁵ Ava. cū., II, p. 169.

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Then we had flocks of sheep and goats confined in an enclosure (vaḍaga).⁸⁶ They were utilised for wool-production. The brooms (rayaharaṇa) and blankets were made of sheep wool.⁸⁷ People used to kill sheep and eat their flesh seasoned with salt, oil and pepper ⁸⁸ Mention is made of a young ram which was fed on rice and grass till it was fattened and was killed on the arrival of the guest.⁸⁹ Veterinary science was also in a developed stage.⁹⁰

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⁸⁶ Vivā., 4, p. 30.

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⁸⁷ Brh. Sū, 2. 25, Bhā. 3. 3914.

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⁸⁸ Sūya II, 6. 37.

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⁸⁹ Uttarā, 7. 1 ff.

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⁹⁰ Nisī cū, 19, p. 1244.

Arboriculture

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Coming to the forest lands,⁹¹ India seems to have been rich in forest tracts. A forest (aḍavī) of eighteen yojanas is mentioned near Rāyagiha.⁹² Almost the whole country was covered with a large variety of trees. Many species of trees covered with fruits and flowers, are mentioned: nimba, āmra, jambu, sāla, aṅkola, bakula, palāsa, putrañjīva, bibhītaka, siṁśapā, śrīparṇī, asoka, tinduka, kapittha, mātuḷiṅga, bilva, āmalaga, phanasa, dāḍima, aśvattha, udumbara, vaṭa, nandī, tilaka, śirīṣa, saptaparṇa, lodhra, candana, arjuna, tālatamāla and others.⁹³

c9.t5.2

⁹¹ Various terms are mentioned to denote a forest; vana, taṇakhaṇḍa taṇaraṇī and kānana, for explanation see Bhag. Ṭī, 5 7, Anu. cū, p 53.

c9.t5.3

⁹² Uttarā. Ṭī, 8, p 125

c9.t5.4

⁹³ Paṇṇa 1 23 12ff, 351 Rāya 3, p 12 Thā. 10., 736 For useful trees in the Atharvaveda see S K Das, op cit, pp 98-103, also pp. 105-8, Rāmāyaṇa, III, 15.15 ff; IV,1 76 ff, Mahābhārata II, 57 44 ff.

c9.t5.5

The trees provided the country with materials for the construction of houses, vehicles etc. Various kinds of bamboos,⁹⁴ creepers,⁹⁵ grass,⁹⁶ medicinal herbs and roots⁹⁷ were to be found in plenty. Vanakamma is mentioned as a profession dealing in wood, which included the felling of trees. Aṅgālakamma was another profession that dealt in charcoal by preparing it from fire wood; it also included brick-making according to the commentator.⁹⁸

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⁹⁴ Vaṁsa, veṇu and kaṇaka are mentioned as varieties of bamboo (Paṇṇa. I, 23, 32).

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⁹⁵ For various kinds of latās and vallīs see ibid, 1. 23. 25 f.

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⁹⁶ For various kinds of grass see ibid., 1. 23 33f

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⁹⁷ For various kind of herbs etc. see ibid., 1 23.40

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⁹⁸ Uvā. 1, p. 11, also cf. Vya. Bhā. 3. 89, Ācā II. 2 303.

c9.t5.11

There were wood-gatherers (kaṭṭhahāraka), leaf-gatherers (pattahāraka) and grass-cutters (taṇahāraka) whom we meet frequently roaming about in the forest.⁹⁹

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⁹⁹ Nāyā. 13. p. 143, Bṛh. Bhā., 1. 1097, Anu. Sū., 130.

Hunting

c9.t6.1

Then we come to hunting. As flesh-eating was common in those days, hunting had its great value. The kings used to go for hunting with a large retinue. We are told about king Sañjaya who chased the deer on horseback in the Kesara garden.¹⁰⁰ Hunting (miyavaha) is referred to in the *Bhagavati*;¹⁰¹ there were regular hunters (*migaluddhaya*) whose occupation was to capture or kill the animals and earn their living by selling them. Hunting with hounds is also mentioned.¹⁰² Such hunters were called *soṇiya* (*śaunika*); others who captured animals by snare were known as *vāgurika*.¹⁰³ Snares and traps (*kūḍajāla*) are mentioned.¹⁰⁴ Even elephants were hunted.¹⁰⁵

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¹⁰⁰ *Uttarā. Sū.*, 18. 2f.

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¹⁰¹ 1. 8.

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¹⁰² *Sāya.* II, 2. 31.

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¹⁰³ *Bṛh. Bhā.* 1. 2766; *Vya. Bhā.* 3. p 20a.

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¹⁰⁴ *Uttarā.* 19. 63.

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¹⁰⁵ *Sūya.* II, 6; 9 2.

Poultry

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Another industry was that of bird-catching and fowling. We meet the fowlers (*sauṇiya*) with bow and arrow aiming at partridges, ducks, quails, pigeons, monkeys and francoline partridges (*kapiñjala*)¹⁰⁶ Birds were caught with hawks (*viḍaṃsiya*), trapped in nets (*jāla*) and captured with the help of bird-lime (*leppa*)¹⁰⁷ With spades and bamboos, baskets in their hands, the fowlers (*aṇḍāvaṇiya*) went in search of eggs of female crow, owl, pigeon, *tittibhi*, crane, pea-hen and hen, which were cooked in baking-pans and were sold.¹⁰⁸ Peacock-tamers (*posaga*) were also known.¹⁰⁹ Cuckoos,¹¹⁰ partridges,¹¹¹ parrots, *madana śālikās*¹¹² (the female of the cuckoo) and other birds were tamed.

c9.t7.2

¹⁰⁶ *Ibid.* II. 2. 31f For the list of birds see *Paṇṇā.* 1. 35, *Rāyā.* sū . 3.

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¹⁰⁷ *Uttarā.* 19. 65.

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¹⁰⁸ *Vivā.* 3, p. 22.

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¹⁰⁹ *Vya.*, *Bhā.* 3. p. 20a; *Nāyā* 3. p. 62.

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¹¹⁰ *Ogha.*, p. 126.

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¹¹¹ *Vasu.*, p. 57.

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¹¹² *Ava. cū.*, p 558.

Fisheries

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Fishing formed another occupation. Various ways of catching fish¹¹³ were known. Fish were caught with hooks (*jāla*) and in bow-net (*maggarajālaa*) and then cleaned and killed.¹¹⁴ A settlement of fishermen (*macchaṇḍhavāḍaga*) is mentioned, where a large number of fishermen was employed. They went to the river Jaunā, filled their boats with fish, dried them, cooked them and sold them in the market.¹¹⁵ Tortoises were also caught for purposes of food.¹¹⁶

c9.t8.2

¹¹³ For various species of fish see *Paṇṇā.* 1. 33. For similar reference in the *Jātakas* see S K. Das, *op. cit.* p. 212.

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¹¹⁴ *Uttarā.* 19. 64; cf. *Vivā* (8, p 47) which mentions twenty two ways of catching fish, *dḍhagaṭaṇa, ḍahamalaṇa, ḍahamahaṇa, ḍahavahaṇa, ḍahapavaṇa, ayampula, pāṇacapula, macchapaṇḍhala, macchapuccha, jambhā tisurā, bhusurā, dusarā, vistrā, hillīrī, jhillīrī, jāla, gala, kūlaṭāvaṇa vakkabandha, suttabandha* and *vālabandha*.

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¹¹⁵ Vuā. 8, p 46 f; Vya. Bhā 3 p 20a

c9.t8.5

¹¹⁶ Nāyā. 4.

Manufactures

Textiles—Spinning and Weaving

c9.t10.1

Now we come to the various manufacturing industries prevalent in those days. Next to agriculture, spinning and weaving was the most important industry. The cloth makers (*nantikka : kolia*) are described as one of the five important craftsmen, others being the potters, the carpenters, the black-smiths and the barbers.¹¹⁷ Mention is made of dealers in dussa (*dosiya*), yarn (*sottiya*) and cotton (*kappāsiya*). Then there were tailors (*tunnāga*), weavers (*tantuvāya*) and makers of silken cloth (*pattakūla*).¹¹⁸ The *sivaga* (tailors) and *chimpāya* (calico printers, *chimpi* in Hindi) were included among important craftsmen.¹¹⁹

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¹¹⁷ Ava, cū., p. 156, Ava. Ti, (Hari.), 947, p. 426a

c9.t10.3

¹¹⁸ Panna. 1. 37.

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¹¹⁹ Jambu. Ti, 3, p 193a.

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Carding is mentioned. The seduga cotton after the seeds were removed were carded (*pinjiya*) and from this slivers (*pelu*) were prepared.¹²⁰ Spinning of cotton¹²¹ and that of the bark of *dugulla* tice¹²² and grass¹²³ (*vaccaka, muñjam*) was also known.

c9.t10.6

¹²⁰ Brh. Bhā., 1. 2996.

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¹²¹ Sūya Ti II., 6. p 388.

c9.t10.8

¹²² Nisī cū, 7, p. 467

c9.t10.9

¹²³ Brh Bhā., 2 3675.

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Weaving sheds (*tantuvāyasālā*) are mentioned; one such shed was situated outside the suburb of Nālandā.¹²⁴ Various kinds of cloths were known and regular trade was carried on in cloths.

c9.t10.11

¹²⁴ Ava. cū., p 282.

c9.t10.12

Then there was the washing and dyeing industry. Washermen were included among eighteen corporations. Soda (*sajjyākhāra*) is mentioned as washing material The clothes were moistened with it and heated on fire and then washed with clean water.¹²⁵ Thrashing against stone,¹²⁶ brushing (*ghattha*), rubbing (*mattha*), and perfuming (*sampadhūmiya*) of clothes was known.¹²⁷ Mention is also made of laundries (*rayagasālā*).¹²⁸

c9.t10.13

¹²⁵ Nāyā, 5, p. 74; also Ava., cū II. p 61.

c9.t10.14

¹²⁶ Pinda Nir 34.

c9.t10.15

¹²⁷ Acā II 5. 1. 367; Brh. Sū, 1. 45.

c9.t10.16

¹²⁸ Vya. Bhā., 10,484.

c9.t10.17

Clothes such as towels etc. were dyed in saffron.¹²⁹ Clothes dyed in red colour (*kāsāi*) were worn in hot weather.¹³⁰ The *parivrājakas* used to wear clothes dyed in red ochre (geruya).¹³¹ The profession of a rajaka, washerman, combined with itself the profession of a dyer as well.

c9.t10.18

¹²⁹ Nāyā 1, p. 7.

c9.t10.19

¹³⁰ Brh. Bhā. Pi., 613.

c9.t10.20

¹³¹ Nisī. Cū., 13. p. 865.

Mining and Metallurgy

c9.t11.1

India was rich in mineral wealth and so in ancient India mining was an important industry. The principle kinds of ores obtained from mines were iron, copper, tin, lead, silver (hiraṇṇa or ruppa), gold (suvaṇṇa) and diamond.¹³² Kāliyadīva possessed rich mines of gold, jewels and diamond.¹³³ Iron and other metals were obtained by fusion.¹³⁴

c9.t11.2

¹³² Ibid. 5, p. 412 Panna. 1 15; Thū. 4 349

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¹³³ Nāyā. 17, p. 202, Uttarā 36.73

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¹³⁴ Brh. Bhā. 1. 1090

c9.t11.5

Besides metals there were hundreds of mineral substances such as salt (loṇa), soda (ūsa), yellow orpiment (hariyāla), vermilion (hiṅgulaya), arsenic (manośila), mercury (sāsaga), antimony (añjana) and others.¹³⁵

c9.t11.6

¹³⁵ Uttarā. Sū 36 74, Sūya II 3 61, Panna 1 15

c9.t11.7

In those days Indians and specially women-folk were as fond of ornaments as they are now. So gold-smiths (suvaṇṇakāra) had a flourishing trade.¹³⁶ Kumāranandī is mentioned as a rich gold-smith of Campā,¹³⁷ Musiyadāraya was another gold-smith (kalūya) of Teyalīpura.¹³⁸

c9.t11.8

¹³⁶ It is said that the ornaments of Visākhā were made in four months with five hundred gold-smiths working day and night. (Dhammapada A I. pp 384 ff)

c9.t11.9

¹³⁷ Āva, Cū p. 397.

c9.t11.10

¹³⁸ Nāyā., 14.

c9.t11.11

Fourteen kinds of ornaments are mentioned : a chain of eighteen strings of pearls (hāra), a chain of nine strings of pearls (addhahāra), a single string of pearls (egāvalī), a necklace of gold and gems (kaṇagāvalī), a necklace of jewels (rayaṇāvalī), a necklace of pearls (muttāvalī), an armlet for upper arm (keūra), a bracelet (kaḍaya), an armlet (tuḍiya), finger ring (muddā), ear-rings (kuṇḍala), a chain round the chest (urasutta), crest-jewel (cūḷāmaṇi) and ornament worn between the eye-brows on the forehead (tilaya).¹³⁹

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¹³⁹ Jambu. Ti Sū, 3, p 216f, Nisī Cū, p 465

c9.t11.13

The ornaments hāra, addahāra, tisaraya (a chain of three strings of pearls), palamba (a pearl pendant), kaḍisutta (waist band), gevijja (neck-chain), aṅgulejjaya (rings), kayābharaṇa (ornaments of the han), kaḍaga, tuḍiya, muddā, kuṇḍala, mauḍa (diadem), valaga (bracelets),¹⁴⁰ aṅgaya (bracelets worn on the upper arm), pāyapalamba (ornament reaching the feet),¹⁴¹ vatthasuttaga (ornament string for the waist) and maṇavi¹⁴² were worn by males. The ornaments for ladies were neura (anklets), mehalā (girdle), hāra, kaḍaga, khuḍḍaya (a ring), valaya, kuṇḍala, rayaṇa (jewels)¹⁴³ and dīnāramālā (a necklace of jewels with a string of dīnāra).¹⁴⁴

c9.t11.14

¹⁴⁰ Oṭā. Sū, 31, p. 122, Kalpa. Sū, 4. 62.

c9.t11.15

¹⁴¹ Nāyā, 1. p. 30.

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