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History of Dharmashastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v2.c24.s1: The proper age for Upanayana

History of Dharmaśāstra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v2.c24.s1

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The proper age for Upanayana

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The Āśv. gṛ.⁶³⁶ (I. 19. 1-6) says that a brāhmaṇa boy should undergo upanayana in the eighth year from birth or from conception, a kṣatriya in the 11th year, a vaiśya in the 12th and that to the 16th, 22nd and 24th years respectively for the three varṇas it cannot be said that the time for upanayana has passed. Āp.⁶³⁷ (10. 2), Śāṅ. (II. 1), Baud. (II. 5. 2) and Bhār. (1. 1), Gobhila (II. 10. 1) gṛhya sūtras, Yāj. I. 14, Āp. Dh. S. I. 1. 1. 19 expressly say that the respective years are calculated from conception. The Mahābhāṣya⁶³⁸ also refers to the rule that a brāhmaṇa's upanayana is to be performed in the 8th year from conception. Pār.⁶³⁹ gṛ. (II. 2) allows upanayana in the 8th year from birth or conception and adds that in the case of all varṇas family usage may be followed. Yāj. I. 14 also refers to family usage. Śāṅ. gṛ. (II. 1. 1) allows upanayana in the 8th or 10th year from conception, the Mānava gṛ. (I. 22. 1) allows it in the 7th or 9th year, the Kāṭhaka gṛ. (41. 1-3) prescribes 7th, 9th and 11th years for the upanayana of the three varṇas respectively. In some smṛtis upanayana is allowed to be performed even earlier or at different ages, e. g. Gautama (I. 6-8) prescribes that upanayana for a brāhmaṇa is in the 8th year from conception but it may be in the 5th or 9th according to the result desired; and Manu. II. 37 says that if spiritual eminence (for the boy) is desired (by his father) then upanayana may be performed in the 5th year for a brāhmaṇa, in the 6th year for a kṣatriya if there is a desire for military power, in the 8th for a vaiśya if there is desire for endeavour to accumulate wealth. Vaik. (II. 3) also prescribes the 5th, 8th, 9th years from conception for a brāhmaṇa if there is a desire respectively for spiritual eminence, long life and wealth. The Āp. Dh. S. I. 1. 1. 21 and Baud. gṛ. (II. 5) prescribe 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th years respectively for one desiring spiritual eminence, long life, brilliance, abundant food, physical vigour and cattle.

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⁶³⁶ अष्टमे वर्षे ब्राह्मणमुपनयेत् । गर्भाष्टमे वा । एकादशे क्षत्रियम् । द्वादशे वैश्यम् । आ षोडशाद् ब्राह्मणस्यानतीतः कालः । आ द्वाविंशात्क्षत्रियस्य । आ चतुर्विंशाद्वैश्यस्य । आश्व. गृ. I. 19. 1-6.

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⁶³⁷ गर्भाष्टमेषु ब्राह्मणमुपनयीत गर्भैकादशेषु राजन्यं गर्भद्वादशेषु वैश्यम् । आप. गृ. 10. 2-3. Vide सं. प्र. pp 340-341 for discussion whether there is option of counting the years from conception or birth in the case of kṣatriyas and vaiśyas. Āp. and several others employ the Ātmanepada ‘उपनयीत’, while Āśv., Khādira (II. 2. 1) and Pār. employ the Parasmaipada उपनयेत्. It should be noticed that in the Atharvaveda XI. 7. 3., शतपथ XI. 5. 4. 1, छां. उ. IV. 4. 5 and elsewhere in the Vedic texts it is the Ātmanepada that is found. Pāṇini (I. 3. 36) lays down that the root ‘nī’ takes the Ātmanepada alone in the case of several senses one of which is आचार्यकरण (and so we should have उपनयेत only). हरदत्त quotes a कारिका that the परस्मैपद is a mistake ‘परस्मैपदपाठोऽयमध्येतॄणां प्रमादतः । आचार्यकरणे यस्मात्प्रामोत्यात्मनेपदम् ॥. Vide संस्कारप्रकाश p. 339 for criticism of हरदत्त's view. Vide शबर quoted above (p. 269 *f. n.* 619).

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⁶³⁸ गर्भाष्टमे ब्राह्मण उपनेय इति सकृदुपनीय कृतः शास्त्रार्थः । महाभाष्य vol. III. p. 57.

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⁶³⁹ अष्टवर्षं ब्राह्मणमुपनयेद्गर्भाष्टमे वैकादशवर्षं राजन्यं द्वादशवर्षं वैश्यं यथासङ्गुलं वा सर्वेषाम् । पारस्करगृ. II. 2. बौ. गृ. adds त्रयोदशे मेधाकामं चतुर्दशे पुष्टिकामं पञ्चदशे भ्रातृव्यवन्तं षोडशे सर्वकाममिति ।

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Therefore, the 8th, 11th and 12th years from birth for the three varṇas are the principal time for upanayana; while the years from 5th onwards up to 11th are the secondary time (gauṇa) for a brāhmaṇa, 9th to 16th are secondary for kṣatriya and so on. From 12th to 16 is *gauṇatara* for brāhmaṇas and after 16 gauṇatama for them. Vide Saṃskāra-prakāśa p. 342.

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The auspicious times according to the Āp. gṛ. and Āp. Dh. S. I. 1. 1. 19, Hir. gṛ. (I. 1) and Vaik. are vasanta (spring), grīṣma (summer), and śarad (autumn) for the three varṇas. The Bhār. gṛ. (I. 1) says that upanayana for a brāhmaṇa should be performed in vasanta, for a kṣatriya in summer or hemanta, for a vaiśya in śarad, in the rains for a carpenter (rathakāra) or in śiśira for all. Śabara in his bhāṣya on Jaimini VI. 1. 33 where upanayana is denied to śūdras quotes ‘vasante brāhmaṇam upanayīta’ as a Vedic text. Āśv. gṛ. I. 4. 1 (quoted above in *f. n.* 494), Hir. gṛ. (I. 1. 5, S. B. E. vol. 30 p. 137) and Bhār. gṛ. (1. 1) say that upanayana should be performed in the bright half of a month, on an auspicious nakṣatra, particularly under a nakṣatra the name of which is masculine.⁶⁴⁰

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⁶⁴⁰ आपूर्यमाणपक्षे पुण्ये नक्षत्रे विशेषेण पुंनामधेये। भारद्वाज I. 1. For पुंनामधेयनक्षत्र see note 512.

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Later works introduced very intricate rules about the proper months, *tithis*, days and times for upanayana. It is neither possible nor very necessary to go into these astrological details. But a few words must be said as in modern times upanayana is performed only in accordance with these rules. Vṛddhagārgya⁶⁴¹ laid down that six months from Māgha were the proper months for upanayana, while others say that five months from Māgha are the proper ones. Then 1st, 4th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 13th, 14th, 15th i. e. (full moon and new moon) tithis are generally avoided (though there are some counter exceptions which are not set out here). It is stated that upanayana should not be performed when Venus is so near the sun that it cannot be seen, when the sun is in the first degree of any zodiacal sign, on anadhyāya days and on galagraha⁶⁴² (the tithis specified above). Jupiter, Venus, Mars⁶⁴³ and Mercury are respectively the presiding deities of the Ṛgveda and the other Vedas. Therefore the upanayana of those who have to study these Vedas should be performed on the week days presided over by these planets. Among week days Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are the best, Sunday is middling, Monday is the least suitable, but Tuesday and Saturday are prohibited (except that for students of the Sāmaveda and kṣatriyas Tuesday is allowed). Among the nakṣatras⁶⁴⁴ the proper ones are Hasta, Citrā, Svāti, Puṣya, Dhaniṣṭhā, Aśvinī, Mṛgaśiras, Punarvasu, Śravaṇa and Revatī. There are other rules about nakṣatras with respect to those who follow a particular Veda (which are passed over). One rule is that all nakṣatras except Bharaṇī, Kṛttikā, Maghā, Viśākhā, Jyeṣṭhā, Śatatārakā are good for all. The Moon and Jupiter must be astrologically strong with reference to the boy's horoscope. The rule about Jupiter probably arose from the fact that Jupiter was supposed to rule over knowledge and happiness and as upanayana was meant to be the entrance for Veda-study, Jupiter's benevolent aspect was thought to be necessary. If Jupiter and Venus are not to be seen owing to nearness to the sun, upanayana cannot be performed. Jupiter when in the 2nd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th zodiacal sign from the sign of birth (calculation to be made inclusive of the sign of birth) is auspicious, when in the 1st, 3rd, 6th, 10th place from the sign of birth it is auspicious after the performance of a propitiatory homa and when it is in the 4th, 8th, 12th place from birth, it is inauspicious. The moon is supposed to be malefic when she is in the 2nd, 4th, 5th, 8th, 9th or 12th place from the sign of birth. Four hours from sunrise is the best for upanayana, from that time to noon is middling and afternoon is prohibited. Some said that a person's upanayana should not be performed in the month in which he was born, others restricted the prohibition to the pakṣa (the half) of the month in which he was born. There are other rules about the Lagna (the rising zodiacal sign at the time of upanayana) which are not set out here. There are other prohibited astrological conjunctions like Vyatīpāta, Vaidhṛti &c. For detailed rules on these, works like the Saṁ. Pr. (pp. 355-385), Nirṇayasindhu and Dharmasindhu may be consulted.

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⁶⁴¹ मासानाह वृद्धगार्ग्यः। माषादिमासषट्के तु मेखलाबन्धनं मतम्। quoted in संस्कारप्रकाश p. 355; तथा च ज्योतिःशास्त्रम्। माघादिषु च मासेषु मौञ्जी पञ्चसु शस्यते। एतच्च वर्णत्रयसाधारणम्। स्मृतिच० I. p. 27.

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⁶⁴² नष्टे चन्द्रेऽस्तगे शुक्रे ऽनरंशे चैव भास्करे। कर्तव्यमौपनयनं नानध्याये गलग्रहे ॥ ...... त्रयोदशीचतुष्कं तु सप्तम्यादित्रयं तथा। चतुर्थ्येकादशी प्रोक्ता अष्टावेते गलग्रहाः॥ स्मृतिच. I. p. 27; अपरार्क p. 32 cites the first as from पुराण.

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⁶⁴³ The निर्णयसिन्धु quotes नारद as to गलग्रह differently 'कृष्णपक्षे चतुर्थी च सप्तम्यादिदिनत्रयम्। त्रयोदशीचतुष्कं च अष्टावेते गलग्रहाः॥'. गुरुर्भृगुसुतो धात्रीपुत्रः शशधरात्मजः। स्युरेते ऋग्यजुःसामाथर्वणामधिपाः क्रमात्॥ स्मृतिच० I. p. 27.

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⁶⁴⁴ हस्ताश्रये पुष्यधनिष्ठयोश्च पौष्णाश्विसौम्यादितिविष्णुभेषु। शस्ते तिथौ चन्द्रबलोपयुक्तो कार्यो द्विजानामुपनयनो विधिः॥ अपरार्क p. 32, स्मृतिच० I. p. 27.

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For persons who are entitled to perform the upanayana of a boy, vide note 480.

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A brahmacārī had to wear two garments, one for the lower part of the body (vāsas), another for covering the upper part of the body (uttarīya). Āp. Dh. S. (I. 1. 2. 39–I. 1. 3. 1–2) says that 'the garment⁶⁴⁵ (vāsas) for a brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya or vaiśya brahmacārī is respectively to be made of hemp, flax, ajina (deerskin), some teachers prescribe that the lower garment should be of cotton but coloured reddish-yellow for brāhmaṇas; dyed with madder for kṣatriyas, dyed with turmeric for vaiśyas.' Pār. gṛ. (II. 5), Manu (II. 41) speak of 'āvika' (made of wool) for vaiśya instead of 'ajina'. Vas. Dh. S. (XI. 64-67) says that a brāhmaṇa (brahmacārī) should wear a (lower) garment which is white and unblemished (or new) and for a kṣatriya or vaiśya it should be the same as in Āp. Dh., but for vaiśya Vas. prescribes also one made of kuśa grass or he says that all should wear cotton cloth that is undyed.' Gaut. (I. 17–20) on the other hand says 'for all the lower garment may be made of hemp, flax or kuśa grass (*cīra*) or of the hair of the mountainous goat (kutapa); other teachers prescribe coloured garments, one coloured with the juice of trees for brāhmaṇas and madder-red and yellow for kṣatriya and vaiśya. Āśv. gṛ. (I. 19. 8), Pār. gṛ. (II. 5), Vas. Dh. S. (XI. 61–63), Baud. gṛ. (II. 5. 16) say that the upper garment for a brāhmaṇa should be the skin of a black deer, for kṣatriya the skin of ruru deer and for a vaiśya of cow-skin or of goat skin. Baud. and Āśv. prescribe only goat skin. Pār. gṛ. adds that if any one cannot secure a skin suited to one's varṇa, he may wear an upper garment of cow-hide as the cow is the chief among animals.⁶⁴⁶ Baud. gṛ. II. 5. 16 prescribes the skin of black deer for all in the same circumstances. Āp. Dh. S. (I. 1. 3. 7–8) gives the option to all varṇas to use a sheep skin (as upper garment) or a woollen plaid (*kambala*). Āśv. gṛ. (I. 19. 8–9) appears to suggest that the lower and upper garments may be of the same skin or that the lower garment may be white or coloured (as stated above by Āp. Dh. S.). The Kāṭhaka gṛ.⁶⁴⁷ (41. 13) says that the upper garment for the three varṇas should be respectively of the skins of black deer, tiger and *ruru* deer. A vestige of these rules survives in the modern practice of tying a small piece of deer skin to the yajñopavīta of the boy when his upanayana is performed.

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⁶⁴⁵ वासः। शाणीक्षौमाजिनानि। काषायं चैके वस्त्रमुपदिशन्ति। माञ्जिष्ठं राजन्यस्य। हारिद्रं वैश्यस्य। आप. ध. 1. 1. 2. 39-41-I. 1. 3. 1-2; शुक्लमहतं वासो ब्राह्मणस्य। माञ्जिष्ठं क्षत्रियस्य। हारिद्रं कौशेयं वा वैश्यस्य। सर्वेषां वा तान्तवमरक्तम्। वसिष्ठ XI. 64-67; what is अहत is defined by प्रचेतस् 'ईषद्धौतं नवं श्वेतं सदशं यन्न धारितम्। अहतं तद् विजानीयात्सर्वकर्मसु पावनम्॥' quoted in स्मृतिच. I. p. 29.

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⁶⁴⁶ ऐणेयमजिनमुत्तरीयं ब्राह्मणस्य रौरवं राजन्यस्याजं गव्यं वा वैश्यस्य सर्वेषां वा गव्यमसति प्रधानत्वात्। पारस्कर II. 5.

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⁶⁴⁷ ऐणेयं चर्म ब्राह्मणाय प्रयच्छति वैयाघ्रं राजन्याय रौरवं वैश्याय। काठकगृह्य 41. 13.

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That the rules about the lower and upper garments go back to great antiquity is shown by a reference to a Brāhmaṇa passage in the Āp. Dh. S.⁶⁴⁸ I. 1. 3. 9 'one should wear only deer-skin (as lower and upper garments) if one desires the increase of Vedic lore, only (cotton) garments if one desires the increase of martial valour and both if one desires both'.

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⁶⁴⁸ ब्रह्मवृद्धिमिच्छन्नजिनान्येव वसीत क्षत्रवृद्धिमिच्छन्न्वस्त्राण्येवोभयवृद्धिमिच्छन्नुभयमिति हि ब्राह्मणम्। अजिनं त्वेवोत्तरं धारयेत्। आप. ध. I. 1. 3. 9–10; compare भारद्वाजगृह्य I. 1 यदाजिनं धारयेद्ब्रह्मवर्चसवद्वासो धारयेत्क्षत्रं वर्धयेदुभयं धार्यमुभयोर्वृद्ध्यर्था इति विज्ञायते।; compare the गोपथब्रा. 2. 4 न तान्तवं वसीत यस्तान्तवं वस्ते क्षत्रं वर्धते न ब्रह्म तस्मात्तान्तवं न वसीत ब्रह्म वर्धतां मा क्षत्रमिति ।

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*Daṇḍa* (staff):—There is some divergence of view about the trees of which the staff was to be made. Āśv. gṛ. (I. 19. 13 and I. 20. 1) says 'a staff of the palāśa wood for a brāhmaṇa, of udumbara for a kṣatriya and of bilva for a vaiśya or all the varṇas may employ a staff of any of these trees.' The Āp. gṛ. 11. 15–16 (this is the same as Āp. Dh. S. I. 1. 2. 38) says that the staff should be of palāśa wood for a brāhmaṇa, of the branch of the nyagrodha tree (so that the downward end of the branch forms the tip of the staff) for a kṣatriya, of *badara* or *udumbara* wood for a vaiśya; while some teachers say that the staff should be made of a tree (which is used in sacrifices) without reference to any varṇa. Gaut. (I. 21) and Baud. Dh. S. (II. 5. 17) say that the staff of palāśa or bilva should be used for brāhmaṇa and Gaut. (I. 22–23) says that aśvattha and pīlu wood staff should be used respectively for kṣatriya and vaiśya or of any sacrificial tree for all varṇas. Baud. gṛ. prescribes nyagrodha or rauhitaka for kṣatriya, and badara or udumbara for vaiśya. Pār. gṛ.

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(II. 5) recommends a staff of palāśa, bilva and udumbara respectively for the three varṇas (or any of these for all). Kāṭhaka gṛ. (41. 22) recommends palāśa, aśvattha and nyagrodha respectively for the three. Manu (II. 45) prescribes bilva and palāśa for brāhmaṇa, vaṭa and khadira for kṣatriya, pīlu and udumbara for vaiśya, and Kullūka adds that two staffs should be used by the boy, as two are recommended in a compound.

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The staff was required for support, for controlling the cattle of the teacher (which the student was to tend), for protection when going out at night and for guidance when entering a river or the like.⁶⁴⁹

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⁶⁴⁹ दण्डाजिनोपवीतानि मेखलां चैव धारयेत् । या. I. 29; 'तत्र दण्डस्य कार्यमवलम्बनं गवाद्य्निवारणं तमोवगाहनमप्सु प्रवेशनमित्यादि' अपरार्क. As the carrying of a staff has a seen result, it need not be carried at all times, according to Aparārka (p. 57), but the others having unseen results must be worn always.

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The length of the staff varied according to the varṇa of the boy. Āśv. gṛ. I. 19. 13, Gaut. I. 25, Vas. Dh. S. (XI. 55-57), Pār. gṛ. (II. 5), Manu (II. 46) prescribe that in the case of the brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya or vaiśya boy respectively the staff should be as high as his head, forehead or the tip of the nose. The Śāṅ. gṛ. (II. 1. 21-23, S. B. E. vol. 29. p. 260) on the other hand reverses this (the brāhmaṇa having the shortest staff and the vaiśya the longest). Gaut. I. 26 says that the staff should be one not eaten by worms, should have the bark attached to it, and should have a curved tip, while Manu II. 47 adds that the staff should be straight, pleasing to look at and should not have come into contact with fire. The Śāṅ. gṛ. (II. 13. 2-3) prescribes that the brahmacārī should not allow any one to pass between himself and his staff and that if the staff, girdle or the yajñopavīta break or rend, he has to undergo a penance (same as the one for the breaking of a chariot at a wedding procession) and that at the end of the period of brahmacarya, he should sacrifice in water the yajñopavīta, staff, the girdle and the skin⁶⁵⁰ with a mantra to Varuṇa (Ṛg. I. 24. 6) or with the sacred syllable 'om'. Manu II. 64 and Viṣṇu Dh. S. (27. 29) say the same thing.

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⁶⁵⁰ उपवीतं च दण्डे बध्नाति । तदप्स्येतत् । यज्ञोपवीतदण्डं च मेखलामजिनं तथा। जुहुयादप्सु व्रते पूर्णे वारुण्यार्चा रसेन । शा. गृ. II. 30. 31. रस means 'ओम्'.

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*Mekhalā* (*girdle*):—Gaut. (I. 15), Āśv. gṛ. (I. 19. 11), Baud. gṛ. (II. 5. 13), Manu II. 42, Kāṭhaka gṛ. (41. 12), Bhār. gṛ. (I. 2) and others prescribe that a girdle made of muñja grass should be tied round a brāhmaṇa boy's waist, one made of mūrvā grass (which is used for making a bowstring) for a kṣatriya and one of hemp cords for a vaiśya. Pāraskara says that the string of a bow should be used for a kṣatriya and of mūrvā grass for a vaiśya and adds that in the absence of these the girdle should respectively be made of kuśa, aśmantaka and balvaja grass (for brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya and vaiśya). Manu (II. 42-43) gives the same rules as Pār. gṛ. Āp. Dh. S. (I. 1.2. 35-37)⁶⁵¹ optionally allows a girdle of muñja grass with an iron piece intertwined in it for kṣatriyas and woollen string or the yoke-string or a string of tāmala bark for vaiśyas (according to some). Baud. gṛ. (II. 5. 13) allows mauñjī girdle also to all. Some of the sūtras (e. g. Baud. gṛ., Āp. Dh. S.) further prescribe that the girdle of muñja grass should have three strings to it and the grass should have its ends turned to the right and the knot of the girdle should be brought near the navel. Manu (II. 43) says that there may be one knot or three or five (according to family usage, says Kullūka).⁶⁵²

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⁶⁵¹ ज्या राजन्यस्य मौञ्जी वायौमिश्रा। आवीसूत्रं वैश्यस्य। सैरी तामली वेत्येके। आप. ध. सू. I. 1. 2. 34-37. तामल is explained as शण (hemp) in the com. on गोभिल II. 10. 10 and by हरदत्त as 'तामलो मूलोदकसंज्ञो वृक्षः। तस्य त्वचा ग्रथिता तामली'.

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⁶⁵² The number of knots was probably regulated by the number of the pravara sages invoked by a person.

v2.c24.s1.30.1

In order to convey an idea of the rites of upanayana in the days of the gṛhya sūtras the ceremony as contained in the Āśv. gṛ. sūtra (which is among the shortest) is set out in full.⁶⁵³ 'Let him initiate the boy who is decked, whose hair (on the head) is shaved (and arranged), who wears a new garment or an antelope skin if a brāhmaṇa, ruru skin if a kṣatriya, goat's skin if a vaiśya; if they put on garments they should put on dyed ones, reddish-yellow, red and yellow (for a brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya, vaiśya respectively), they should have girdles and staffs (as described above). While the boy takes hold of (the hand of) his teacher, the latter offers (a homa of clarified butter oblations) in the fire (as described above) and seats himself to the north of the fire with his face turned to the east, while the other one (the boy) stations himself in front (of the teacher) with his face turned to the west. The teacher then fills the folded hands of both himself and of the boy with water and with the verse 'we choose that of Savitṛ' (Ṛg. V. 82. 1) the teacher drops down the water in his own folded hands on to the water in the folded hands of the boy; having thus poured the water, he should seize with his own hand the boy's hand together with the thumb (of the boy) with the formula 'by the urge (or order) of the god Savitṛ, with the arms of the two Aśvins, with the hands of Pūṣan, I seize thy hand, oh!

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so and so';653a with the words 'Savitṛ has seized thy hand, oh so and so' a second time (the teacher seizes the boy's hand); with the words 'Agni is thy teacher, oh so and so' a third time. The teacher should cause (the boy) to look at the sun, while the teacher repeats 'God Savitṛ! this is thy brahmacārī, protect him, may he not die'⁶⁵⁴ and (the teacher should further) say 'Whose brahmacārī art thou? thou art the brahmacārī of Prāṇa. Who does initiate thee and whom (does he initiate)? I give⁶⁵⁵ thee to Ka (to Prajāpati)'. With the half verse (Ṛg. III 8. 4.) 'the young man, well attired and dressed, came⁶⁵⁶ hither' he (the teacher) should cause him to turn round to the right and with his two hands placed over (the boy's) shoulders he should touch the place of the boy's heart repeating the latter half (of Ṛg. III. 8. 4). Having wiped the ground round the fire the brahmacārī should put (on the fire) a fuel stick silently, since it is known (from śruti) 'what belongs to Prajāpati is silently (done)', and the brahmacārī belongs to Prajāpati. Some do this (offering of a fuel stick) with a mantra 'to Agni I have brought a fuel stick, to the great Jātavedas; by the fuel stick mayst thou increase, Oh Agni and may we (increase) through brahman (prayer or spiritual lore), svāhā'.⁶⁵⁷ Having put the fuel stick (on the fire) and having touched the fire, he (the student) thrice wipes off his face with the words 'I anoint myself with lustre';

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it is known (from śruti) 'for he does anoint himself with lustre'. 'May Agni bestow on me, insight, offspring and lustre; on me may Indra bestow insight, offspring and vigour (indriya); on me may the sun bestow insight, offspring and radiance; what thy lustre is, Oh Agni, may I thereby become lustrous; what thy strength is, Agni, may I thereby become strong; what thy consuming power is Agni, may I thereby acquire consuming power'.⁶⁵⁸ Having waited upon (worshipped) Agni with these formulas, (the student) should bend his knees, embrace (the teacher's feet) and say to him 'recite, Sir, recite, Sir, the Sāvitrī'. Seizing the student's hands with the upper garment (of the student) and his own hands the teacher recites the Sāvitrī, first pāda by pāda, then hemistich by hemistich (and lastly) the whole verse. He (the teacher) should make him (the student) recite (the Sāvitrī) as much as he is able. On the place of the student's heart the teacher lays his hand with the fingers upturned with the formula 'I place thy heart⁶⁵⁹ unto duty to me; may thy mind follow my mind; may you attend on my words single-minded; may Bṛhaspati appoint thee unto me'. Having tied the girdle round him (the boy) and having given him the staff, the teacher should instruct him in the observances of a brahmacārī with the words 'a brahmacārī⁶⁶⁰ art thou, sip water, do service, do not sleep by day, depending (completely) on the teacher learn the Veda'.

v2.c24.s1.30.4

He (the student) should beg (food) in the evening and the morning; he should put a fuel stick (on fire) in the evening and the morning. That (which he has received by begging) he should announce to the teacher; he should not sit down (but should be standing) the rest of the day."⁶⁶¹

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⁶⁵³ Vide Appendix for the text of Āśv. gṛ. and for a very concise form prepared recently.

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653a Here the boy should be addressed by his name. The formula 'devasya tvā' occurs in several connections (e. g. in adoption etc.) in several saṁhitās. Vide for this वाज. सं. II. 11, तै. सं. II 6. 8. 6. A similar formula occurs in आप. मन्त्रपाठ II. 3. 24 and II. 9. 5, हिरण्य. गृ. I. 11. 17, मानवगृ. I. 22. 5, बौ. गृ. II. 5. 28 (देवस्य......हस्ताभ्यामुपनयेऽसौ), काठकगृ. 41. 16 (reads as in बौ. गृ.)

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⁶⁵⁴ देव ...... मा मृत. This मन्त्र occurs also in the आप. मन्त्रपाठ II. 3. 31 (असावेष ते देव सूर्य ...... मृत) and in मानवगृह्य I. 22. 5, शां. गृ. II. 18. 4 and others.

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⁶⁵⁵ The words कस्य ...... परिददामि occur in आप. म. पा. II. 3. 29, मानवगृह्य I. 22. 5, पारस्कर II. 2 (with variations in all)

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⁶⁵⁶ For the whole verse युवा सुवासाः vide note 620 above.

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⁶⁵⁷ अग्नये समिधमाहार्षं &c—The first half occurs in आप. म. पा. II. 6. 2, पारस्कर II. 4, हिरण्य. गृ. I. 7. 2, गोभिलगृह्य II. 10. 46, भारद्वाजगृ. I. 8, all of which have a long latter half like यथा त्वमग्ने समिधा समिध्यसे एवं मामायुषा ...

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⁶⁵⁸ मयि मेधां &c. These mantras occur in तै. सं. III. 3. 1. 2 and III. 5. 3. 2; also in हिरण्य. गृ., बौ. गृ. II. 5. 62 &c.

v2.c24.s1.38

⁶⁵⁹ मम व्रते &c. These words also occur in पारस्करगृ. II. 2., मानवगृ. I. 22. 10, हिरण्यगृ. (where we have मम हृदये). These words also occur in the marriage ceremony (as addressed by the husband); vide पारस्करगृ. I. 8.

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⁶⁶⁰ ब्रह्मचार्यसि &c. These words (with some additions and omissions) occur in आप. म. पा. II. 6. 14, पारस्करगृ. II. 3, काठकगृ 41. 17 and several others. These are based on the शतपथ passage quoted in note 625 above. In some it is said simply 'do not sleep' and this is explained in आप. ध. सू. I. 1. 4. 28. as 'अथ यः पूर्वोत्थायी जघन्यसंवेशी तमाहुर्न स्वपितीति'.

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⁶⁶¹ अनुप्रवचनीय sacrifice is to be performed after a part of the Veda has been learnt.; vide आश्व. गृ. I. 22. 10-16, गोभिलगृह्य III. 2. 46-47.

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The whole procedure of upanayana is more elaborately described in the Āp. gṛ., in Hira. gṛ. and Gobhila. A few points of interest and divergence may be noted here briefly. It is remarkable that Āśv., Āp. and several other sūtrakāras do not say a word about the sacred thread, while a few like Hir. gṛ. (I. 2. 6), Bhār. gṛ. (I. 3) and Mānava gṛ. (I. 22. 2) say that the boy already wears the yajñopavīta before the homa begins; while Baud. gṛ.⁶⁶² (II. 5. 7) says that the boy is given the yajñopavīta and then made to recite the well-known mantra ‘the Yajñopavīta is extremely sacred’ and the Vaik. smārta (II. 5) says that the teacher gives the upper garment to the boy with⁶⁶³ the verse ‘parīdaṁ vāsaḥ’, the sacred thread with the mantra ‘Yajñopavītam’ and the black antelope skin with the mantra ‘the eye of Mitra’. Sudarśana on Āp. gṛ. 10. 5 says that the boy puts on the yajñopavīta with the mantra before he takes his meal (according to some) or (according to others) before⁶⁶⁴ he puts the fuel stick on the fire and relies on Āp. Dh. S. I. 5. 15. 1 for support. According to Karka and Harihara (on Pāraskara) the yajñopavīta was given to the student by the teacher after the tying of the girdle. The Saṁskāratattva p. 934 says the same. Late works like the Saṁskāraratnamālā (p. 202) prescribe the wearing of the sacred thread before the homa. The origin and development of the ideas about yajñopavīta will be dealt with separately later on. Āp. gṛ. (X. 5), Baud gṛ. (II. 5. 7) and Pār. gṛ. (II. 2) prescribe a dinner to brāhmaṇas before the ceremonies begin and receiving their benedictions. Āp. gṛ. (X. 5), Bhār. gṛ. (I. 1), Baud gṛ.⁶⁶⁵ (II. 5. 7) say that the boy also is made to take food; according to later works (e. g. Saṁskāraratnamālā) the boy takes his meal in the same dish with his mother (for the last time) and other brahmacārins (eight in number) are also invited at the same time for meals in the company of the boy. This practice is observed even in modern times. Almost all prescribe that the boy is shaved on this day (as in caula); this also is done in modern times. But in ancient⁶⁶⁶ times the shaving was done by the ācārya himself as stated by Sudarśana on Āp. gṛ. 10. 6–8. There are several other matters detailed in Āp. and others, on which Āśv. and some others are silent. The important ones are mentioned below.

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⁶⁶² स्नातं शुचिवाससं बद्धशिखं यज्ञोपवीतं प्रतिमुञ्चन् वाचयति ‘यज्ञोपवीतं परमं पवित्रं प्रजापतेर्यत्सहजं पुरस्तात् । आयुष्यमग्र्यं प्रतिमुञ्च शुभ्रं यज्ञोपवीतं बलमस्तु तेजः ॥’ इति । यज्ञोपवीतिनमप आचमय्याथ देवयजनमुदानयति । बौ. गृ. II. 5. 7-8; the verse यज्ञोपवीतं is quoted as from गृह्यपरिशिष्ट in स्मृतिच० (I. p. 31) and is repeated even in the island of Bali by the *pedandas*. In some mss. of Pār. gṛ. this mantra occurs, but it is an interpolation, as Karka, Jayarāma and Harihara say ‘यथाप सूत्रकारेण यज्ञोपवीतधारणं न सूत्रितम्’ (हरिहर).

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⁶⁶³ परीदं वासः — this is आप. म. पा. II. 2. 8; मित्रस्य चक्षुः is आप. म. पा. II. 2. 11.

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⁶⁶⁴ Acc. to शाङ्खायनगृह्य II. 2. 3 the आचार्य says ‘यज्ञोपवीतमसि यज्ञस्य त्वा यज्ञोपवीतेनोपनह्यामि.’

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⁶⁶⁵ बौ. गृ. सू. ‘कुमारं भोजयित्वा तस्य चौलैवस्तूष्णीं केशानोप्त्य स्नातं शुचिवाससं बद्धशिखम्’ &c. (II. 5. 7).

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⁶⁶⁶ त्रींस्त्रीन् दर्भानन्तर्धायोत्तराभिश्चतसृभिः चतसृभिः प्रतिमन्त्रं प्रतिदिशं प्रवपति। वपन्तमुत्तरयानुमन्त्रयते दक्षिणतो माता ब्रह्मचारी वा। आनडुहे शकृत्पिण्डे यवानावधाय तस्मिन्केशानुपयम्योत्तरयोडुम्बरमूले दर्भस्तम्बे वा निदधाति। आप. गृ. X.6-8. सुदर्शन on sūtra says 'प्रशब्वकरणात्कुशलीकरणमप्याचार्यस्यैव' and on sūtra 8 'केचित्-आचार्यः पूर्वं वपनमारभते ततो नापितः संसृष्टाभिरेवाद्भिरवधं कुर्वन् केशान् प्रवपति । तं च वपन्तमुत्तरया आचार्योनुमन्त्रयते । दक्षिणतो मातेत्युक्तार्थमेव । तन्न । एतद्वपनं नापितः समापयतीत्यत्र वचनाभावात् तत्कल्पनायां चानुपपन्नभावात् ।' हरदत्त on आप. गृ. X. 6 says 'पूर्वं मन्त्रवद्वपनं करोत्याचार्यः पश्चात् नापित इत्युक्तं भवति,' which is combated by सुदर्शन.

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(a) Āp. gṛ. (10. 9), Mānava gṛ. (I. 23. 12), Baud. gṛ. (II. 5. 10), Khādira gṛ. (II. 4) and Bhār. gṛ. (I. 8) make the boy tread on a stone to the north of the fire with his right foot after homa. The mantras repeated in the several sūtras are significant asking the boy to be firm like a stone.⁶⁶⁷

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⁶⁶⁷ आतिष्ठेममश्मानमश्मेव त्वं स्थिरो भव । अभि तिष्ठ पृतन्यतः सहस्व पृतनायतः। आप. म. पा. II. 2. 2, which is the मन्त्र in आप. गृ., भार० गृ., बौ. गृ.

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(b) Mānava gṛ. (I.22.3) and Kāṭhaka gṛ. (41. 10) prescribe after homa the tasting of curds thrice after repeating the verse 'Dadhikrāvṇo akāriṣam' (Rg. IV. 39. 6=Tai. S. I. 5. 4. 11).

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(c) Pār. gṛ. (II. 2), Bhār. gṛ. (I. 7), Āp. gṛ. (11. 1–4), Āp. Mantrapāṭha (II. 3. 27–30), Baud. gṛ. II. 5. 25 (quoting Śāṭyāyanaka), Mānava gṛ. I. 22. 4–5, and Khādira gṛ. II. 4. 12 refer to the fact that the teacher asks the boy his name and the latter pronounces his name. The teacher also asks whose brahmacārī the boy is.

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A person was given (as shown above at pp. 246–247) an abhivādanīya name either derived from the nakṣatra of birth or from a deity name or the gotra name. This was necessary for several purposes. The teacher had to know that the boy came from a good family, he had also to address him by name (as there might be several pupils). It is wrong to suppose⁶⁶⁸ from the story of Satyakāma Jābāla (where the teacher asked him his gotra ) that only brāhmaṇas were admitted to brahmacarya. All smṛtis, even the latest, contemplated that the three castes had the right to learn the Veda. It is one thing to have a right and another to exercise it. Probably very few kṣatriyas cared to submit their sons to the rigorous discipline of brahmacarya as laid down in the smṛtis and cared much less for Veda studies. In the Mahābhārata and in the Kādambarī it is said that the princes were taught in a special house constructed for the purpose and teachers were paid handsomely and brought there to teach instead of the princes going to the teachers.

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⁶⁶⁸ Vide Keay in 'Ancient Indian Education' p. 23 where he says 'it was still the rule for brāhmaṇas to be received as students.' Dr. Ghurye in 'Caste and race in India' p. 43 merely repeats this dictum.

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It is not possible for want of space to show how the greatest possible confusion prevails as to the order of the various components of the ceremony of upanayana. But a few striking examples may be given. Āśvalāyana gṛ. treats of the tying of the girdle and the giving of the staff almost at the end of the ceremony, while Āp. gṛ. puts this after homa and immediately before añjalipūraṇa ( filling the folded hands of both with water ); Āśvalāyana puts ādityadarśana after the boy's hand is held by the teacher and before paridāna ( handing the boy over to the deities ), but Bhār. ( I. 9 ) puts it after the instruction in the observances of brahmacarya. The Bhār. gṛ. ( I. 9 ) treats of ādityadarśana almost at the end of the rites, while Āśv. places it among the earlier ones after homa. Besides the same mantras are employed by different sūtras for different purposes; for example, the mantra 'suśravaḥ &c.' is employed by Āp. at the time of taking the staff by the boy ( XI. 14 and Mantrapāṭha II. 5. 1 ), while Āśv. gṛ. ( I. 22. 19 ), Bhār. gṛ. ( I. 10 ), Mānava gṛ. ( I. 23. 17 ) employ it in 'medhājanana' ( on the 4th day after upanayana ) and Pār. gṛ. (II. 4) employs it at the time of putting a fuel stick on fire. Āśv. employs the verse 'yuvā suvāsāḥ' ( Ṛg. III. 8. 4 ) for making the boy turn round ( first half ) and for touching the region of the boy's heart ( latter half ), while the same verse is employed at the time of tying the girdle round the boy's waist by the Mānava gṛ. ( I. 22. 8 ) and Pār. gṛ.( II. 2 ).

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Later writers went on adding mantras and details. On the day prior to upanayana the Nāndīśrāddha was performed as said by Haradatta on Āp. gṛ. 10. 5. *Grahamakha* ( a sacrifice to the planets ) also may be performed the previous day or on any day within 7 or 10 days of the upanayana. Then before the actual upanayana, there is the worship of Gaṇapati and of Kuladevatās, puṇyāhavācana, the worship of Mātṛs and the consecration of the maṇḍapa-devatās. For the detailed modern procedure (prayoga) of upanayana, the S. R. M. (pp. 197-210), which in the main follows the briefer procedure in the gṛhya sūtras, may be consulted. Up to the act of making the boy dine with his mother it is the father who does everything; thereafter it is the ācārya who does the rest. The saṁkalpa of upanayana is given below⁶⁶⁹.

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⁶⁶⁹ आचम्य प्राणानायम्य देशकालौ संकीर्त्यास्य कुमारस्य द्विजत्वसिद्धिपूर्वकवेदाध्ययनाधिकारसिद्धिद्वारा श्रीपरमेश्वरप्रीत्यर्थमाचार्यपैतृक सावित्रीमातृकसमुपनयनाख्यं संस्कारं करिष्य इति सङ्कल्पं कुर्यात् ।

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*Yajñopavīta*⁶⁷⁰:—A few words must be said on the history of *yajñopavīta* from ancient times. Among the earliest references is one from the Tai. S. II. 5. 11. 1 'the nivīta⁶⁷¹ is (used in actions) for men, the prācīnāvīta (is used in rites) for pitṛs, the upavīta (in rites) for gods; he wears it in the upavīta mode (i. e. slung from the left shoulder), thereby he makes a distinguishing sign of the gods'. In the Tai. Br. (I. 6. 8.) we read 'wearing in the prācīnāvīta form he offers towards the south; for in the case of pitṛs, acts are performed towards the south. Disregarding that one should wear in the upavīta form and offer in the north only, since both gods and pitṛs are worshipped (in this rite)'.⁶⁷² The three words nivīta, prācīnāvīta and upavīta are explained in the Gobhila gṛ. (I. 2. 2-4) which says 'raising his right arm, putting the head into (the upavīta) he suspends (the cord) over his left shoulder in such a way that it hangs down on his right side; thus he becomes yajñopavītin. Passing his left arm, putting the head (into the upavīta) he suspends it over his right shoulder, so that it hangs down along his left side; in this way he becomes prācīnāvītin; a person becomes prācīnāvītin only in the sacrifice offered to the Manes'⁶⁷³. To the same effect is Khādira gṛ. I. 1. 8-9, Manu II. 63, Baud. gṛ. paribhāṣā-sūtra II. 2. 7 and 10, Vaik. I. 5. The Baud.⁶⁷⁴ gṛ. paribhāṣā-sūtra II. 2. 3 says 'when it is carried over the neck, both shoulders and the chest and is held with both the thumbs (of the two hands) lower than the region of the heart and above the navel, that is *nivīta*; (when the śruti says it is) for men, what it means is that it is for sages. The occasions when nivīta mode is used are: ṛṣi-tarpaṇa, sexual intercourse, saṁskāras of one's children except when homa is to be performed, answering the calls of nature, carrying a corpse and whatever other actions are meant only for men; nivīta is what hangs from the neck'.

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⁶⁷⁰ Vide 'Orion' by the late Mr. Tilak pp. 145-148 for discussion on this.

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⁶⁷¹ निवीतं मनुष्याणां प्राचीनावीतं पितॄणामुपवीतं देवानाम् । उपव्ययते देवलक्ष्ममेव तत्कुरुते । तै. सं. II. 5. 11. 1.

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⁶⁷² दक्षिणतः प्राचीनावीती निर्वपति । दक्षिणावृद्धि पितॄणाम् । अनादृत्य तत् । उत्तरत एवोपवीय निर्वपेत् । उभये हि देवाश्च पितरश्चेज्यन्ते । अथो यदेव दक्षिणार्धेषिश्रयति तेन दक्षिणावृत् । तै. ब्रा. I. 6. 8.

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⁶⁷³ दक्षिणं बाहुमुद्धृत्य शिरोऽवधाय सव्येंसे प्रतिष्ठापयति दक्षिणं कक्ष मन्ववलम्बं भवत्येवं यज्ञोपवीती भवति । सव्यं बाहुमुद्धृत्य शिरोऽवधाय दक्षिणेसे प्रतिष्ठापयति सव्यं कक्ष मन्ववलम्बं भवत्येवं प्राचीनावीती भवति । पितृयज्ञे त्वेव प्राचीनावीती भवति । गोभिल गृह्य I. 2. 2-4.

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⁶⁷⁴ उपरिष्टादंसाभ्यां ग्रीवां हृदयं च संपरिगृह्य हृदयस्याधस्तादूर्ध्वं नाभेरण्गुष्ठाभ्यां परिगृह्णाति तन्निवीतं मनुष्याणामिति ऋषीणामित्येवेदमुक्तं भवति । अथ निवीतकार्याणि ऋषीणां तर्पणं व्यवायः प्रजासंस्कारोऽन्यत्र होमात्, मूत्रपुरीषोत्सर्गः प्रेतोद्वहनं यानि चान्यानि मनुष्यकार्याणि कण्ठेऽवसक्तं निवीतमिति । बौ. गृ. परिभाषासूत्र II. 2. 3 and 6.

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The Śat. Br. (II. 4. 2. 1, S. B. E. vol. 12, p. 361) says "the gods being yajñopavītins approached near, bending their right knee; he (Prajāpati) said to them 'the sacrifice is your food, immortality is your strength, the sun is your light'; then the pitṛs approached him, being prācīnāvītins and bending their left knee and then men approached him covered with a garment and bending their bodies" etc.⁶⁷⁵ It is important to note here that men are said to have been covered only with a garment and there is no reference in their case to any mode of wearing either as yajñopavīta or nivīta or prācīnāvīta. This rather suggests that men wore only garments when approaching gods and not necessarily a cord of threads. In the Tai.⁶⁷⁶ Br. III. 10. 9. it is said that when *vāk* (speech) appeared to Devabhāga Gautama he put on the yajñopavīta and fell down with the words 'namo namaḥ'.

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⁶⁷⁵ ततो देवा यज्ञोपवीतिनो भूत्वा दक्षिणं जान्वाच्योपासीदंस्तानब्रवीद्यज्ञो वोऽन्नममृतत्वं व ऊर्ग्वः सूर्यो वो ज्योतिरिति । अथैनं पितरः प्राचीनावीतिनः सव्यं जान्वाच्य ...... अथैनं मनुष्याः प्रावृता उपस्थं कृत्वोपासीदन् , शतपथ II. 4. 2. 1.

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⁶⁷⁶ एतावति ह गौतमः यज्ञोपवीतं कृत्वा अधो निपपात नमो नम इति । तै. ब्रा. III. 10. 9. सायण remarks 'स्वकीयेन वस्त्रेण यज्ञोपवीतं कृत्वा.'.

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It seems to follow from a passage in the Tai. Ā. (II. 1) that a strip of black antelope skin or of cloth was used in ancient times as upavīta⁶⁷⁷ 'the sacrifice of him who wears the yajñopavīta becomes spread out (prosperous, famous), while the sacrifice of him who does not wear it does not spread; whatever a brāhmaṇa studies, wearing a yajñopavīta, he really (therein) performs a sacrifice. Therefore one should study, sacrifice or officiate at a sacrifice with the yajñopavīta on for securing the spreading of sacrifice; having worn an antelope skin or a garment on the right side, he raises the right hand and keeps the left down; this is yajñopavīta; when this position is reversed it is prācīnāvīta; the position called saṁvīta is for men.' It is remarkable that here at any rate no cord of threads is meant by upavīta, but only a piece of skin or cloth. The Par. M. (I. part 1 p. 173) quotes⁶⁷⁸ a portion of the above passage and remarks that the Tai. Ār. lays down that a man becomes an upavītin by wearing one of the two, viz. antelope skin and (cotton) garment.

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⁶⁷⁷ प्रसृतो ह वै यज्ञोपवीतिनो यज्ञोऽप्रसृतोऽनुपवीतिनो यत्किं च ब्राह्मणो यज्ञोपवीत्यधीते यजत एव तत् । तस्माद्यज्ञोपवीत्येवाधीयीत याजयेद्यजेत वा यज्ञस्य प्रसृत्यै । अजिनं वासो वा दक्षिणत उपवीय दक्षिणं बाहुमुद्धरतेऽवधत्ते सव्यमिति यज्ञोपवीतमेतदेव विपरीतं प्राचीनावीतं संवीतं मानुषम् । तै. आ. II. 1. This passage is quoted as from the Kāṭhaka in the तन्त्रवार्तिक on जैमिनि I. 3. 7 (p. 201).

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⁶⁷⁸ तत्रेतिकर्तव्यतारूपेण कृष्णाजिनवाससोरन्यतरेणोपवीतित्वं तैत्तिरीयके विधीयते । परा. मा. I. 1. p. 173.

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In the Pūrvamīmāṁsāsūtra (III. 1. 21) it is established (with reference to the words) in the Tai. S. II. 5. 11. 1 (upavyayate etc. quoted in *f. n.* 671) that one has to be an upavītin throughout all the actions, prescribed in the sections on the Darśa-Pūrṇamāsa sacrifice and not only when the Sāmidhenī verses are recited. The first part of the same passage is discussed by Jaimini (III. 4. 1-9) and it is established that the passage enjoins the wearing of upavīta in Darśa-Pūrṇamāsa which is devakarma and that the reference to prācīnāvīta and nivīta is only an *anuvāda* intended to emphasize the desirability of the wearing of upavīta in sacrifices to gods. The Tantravārtika⁶⁷⁹ explains that *nivīta* is tying the upavīta round the throat like a braid of hair (according to some), while according to others it is tying it round the waist as if for girding up the loins and that the first is not done except in battle, while the latter has to be resorted to in all acts in order to devote sole attention to them. So according to the Tantravārtika, the Tai. S. is not referring (in II. 5. 11. 1) to a cord of threads but to a piece of cloth. Some of the sūtrakāras and commentators drop hints that garments were used or could be used as upavīta. Āp. Dh. S. (II. 2. 4. 22-23) says that a householder should always wear an upper garment and then adds 'or the sacred thread may serve the purpose of an upper garment.' This shows that originally upavīta meant an upper garment and not merely a cord of threads. In another place the same sūtra says (II. 8. 19. 12) 'one (who partakes of śrāddha dinner) should eat covered with an upper garment slung over the left shoulder and passing under the right arm'. Haradatta gives two explanations of this, viz. that one should wear an upper garment (while dining at a śrāddha) like a yajñopavīta i. e. under the right arm and over the left shoulder, that is, a brāhmaṇa cannot rely on Āp. Dh. S. II. 2. 4. 23 and wear at śrāddha repast only the sacred thread (but he must wear the garment in that fashion) and give up the sacred thread for the time.⁶⁸⁰ While another view is that he must wear the sacred thread and the upper garment both in the fashion of upavīta. Āp. Dh. S. (I. 2. 6. 18–19) prescribes that when a student wears two garments he should wear one of them (i. e. the upper one) in the yajñopavīta mode, but when he wears only one garment then he should wear it round the lower part of the body (and should not cover the upper body with a portion of the garment though it may be long enough for that). Āp. Dh. S. I. 5. 15. 1 prescribes that a man must be yajñopavītin at the time of waiting upon teachers, elders, guests, at the time of homa, in *japa* (murmuring prayer), at meals and in taking ācamana and at the time of daily vedic study. On this Haradatta says 'yajñopavīta means a particular mode of wearing the (upper) garment; if one has no upper garment, then there is another (but inferior) mode stated in Āp. Dh. S. II. 2. 4. 23 and that at other times it is not necessary to have the yajñopavīta'.

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⁶⁷⁹ निवीतं केचिद्गलवेणिकायन्धं स्मरन्ति । केचित्पुनः परिकरबन्धम् । तत्र गलवेणिकाबन्धो युद्धादन्यत्र न प्राप्नोति । परिकरबन्धस्तु सर्वकर्मस्वव्यग्रताकरत्वात्प्राप्तः । तन्त्रवार्तिक on जैमिनि III. 4. 2 (p. 891).

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⁶⁸⁰ नित्यमुत्तरं वासः कार्यम्। अपि वा सूत्रमेवोपवीतार्थे। आप. ध. सू. II. 2. 4. 22-23; सोत्तराच्छादनश्चैव यज्ञोपवीती भुञ्जीत। आप. ध. सू. II. 8. 19. 12; हरदत्त explains "उत्तराच्छादनमुपर वासः। तेन यज्ञोपवीतेन यज्ञोपवीतं कृत्वा भुञ्जीत। नास्य भोजने 'अपि वा सूत्रमेवोपवीतार्थे' इत्ययं कल्पो भवतीत्येके। समुच्चय इत्यन्ये।"; यज्ञोपवीती द्विवस्त्रः। अधोनिवीतरत्वेकवस्त्रः। आप. ध. सू. I. 2. 6. 18-19; उपासने गुरूणां वृद्धानामतिथीनां होमे जप्यकर्मणि भोजन आचमने स्वाध्याये च यज्ञोपवीती स्यात्। आप. ध. सू. I 5. 15. 1, where हरदत्त says 'वासोविन्यासविशेषो यज्ञोपवीतम्। दक्षिणं बाहुमुद्धरत इति ब्राह्मणविहितम्। वाससोऽसंभवेऽनुकल्पं वक्ष्यति अपि वा सूत्रमेवोपवीतार्थ इति। एषु विधानात् कालान्तरे नावश्यंभावः।'; vide औशनसस्मृति (Jīvānanda, part I. p. 502) 'अग्न्यगारे गवां गोष्ठे होमे जप्ये तथैव च । स्वाध्याये भोजने नित्यं ब्राह्मणानां च संनिधौ। उपासने गुरूणां च संध्ययोरुभयोरपि। उपवीती भवेन्नित्यं विधिरेष सनातनः ॥'

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The Gobhila gṛ. (I. 2. 1) in treating of upanayana⁶⁸¹ says 'the student takes as yajñopavīta a cord of threads, a garment or a rope of kuśa grass'. This indicates that though a cord of threads was considered in Gobhila's days as the appropriate yajñopavīta, that was not an invariable rule in his day and that a garment could be employed instead. The commentator being brought up in the latter day tradition explains by saying that if the sūtra was lost in a forest then a garment may be worn like the sacred thread and if even that was lost a rope of kuśa. But this appears to be rather far-fetched as an explanation of Gobhila's unqualified words. Manu (II. 44) says that 'the upavīta of a brāhmaṇa should be made of cotton, its strands should be twined with the right hand moved over them (or the twist of the strands must be upwards) and it should have three threads'. Medhātithi comments on this that 'upavīta' means a particular mode of wearing a garment or a particular position of it and therefore here by upavīta is meant that which can be worn in that mode. The Sm. C. quotes a prose passage from Ṛṣyaśṛṅga 'or one may carry out all the purposes for which yajñopavīta is required by means of a garment and in its absence by a string of three threads'. From the above passages, from the fact that many of the gṛhyasūtras are entirely silent about the giving or wearing of the sacred thread in upanayana and from the fact that no mantra⁶⁸² is cited from the Vedic Literature for the act of giving the yajñopavīta (which is now the centre of the upanayana rites), while scores of vedic mantras are cited for the several component parts of the ceremony of upanayana, it is most probable, if not certain, that the sacred thread was not invariably used in the older times as in the times of the later smṛtis and in modern times, that originally the upper garment was used in various positions for certain acts, that it could be laid aside altogether in the most ancient times and that the cord of threads came to be used first as an option and later on exclusively for the upper garment.

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⁶⁸¹ यज्ञोपवीतं कुरुते वस्त्रं वापि वा कुशरज्जुमेव। गोभिलगृह्य I. 2. 1; सूत्रमपि वस्त्राभावाद्वेदितव्यमिति। अपि वाससा यज्ञोपवीतार्थान् कुर्यात्तदभावे त्रिवृता सूत्रेणेति ऋष्यशृङ्गस्मरणात्। स्मृतितत्त्व० I. p. 32.

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⁶⁸² The mantra 'यज्ञोपवीतं परमं &c. is cited only in Baud. gr. (note 662 above) and in Vaik. (II. 5), has certainly a comparatively modern ring about it and is not cited in any well-known ancient work.

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A few rules about yajñopavīta may now be stated here.⁶⁸³ The yajñopavīta is to have three threads of nine strands well twisted (for each thread). Vide Baud. Dh.S.I. 5. 5., Devala quoted in the Sm. C.⁶⁸⁴ The nine devatās of the nine *tantus* (strands) are given by Devala viz. Oṁkāra, Agni, Nāga, Soma, Pitṛs, Prajāpati, Vāyu, Sūrya,⁶⁸⁵ all gods. Medhātithi on Manu II. 44 says that in iṣṭis, animal sacrifices and soma sacrifices, the yajñopavīta was to have only one thread of three *tantus*, but it was three-fold in three classes of *ahīna*, *ekāha*, and *sattra* sacrifices as they required three fires and in the seven *somasaṁsthās* seven-fold and five-fold when viewed with reference to the three savanas and two saṁdhyās. The yajñopavīta should reach as far as the navel, should not reach beyond the navel, nor should it be above the chest.⁶⁸⁶ Manu II. 44 and Viṣṇu Dh. S. 27. 19 prescribe that the yajñopavīta for brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya and vaiśya should respectively be of cotton, hemp and sheep wool. Baud. Dh. S. (I. 5. 5), Gobhila gṛ. (I. 2. 1) say that it may be of cotton thread or of kuśa grass and Devala as quoted in Sm. C. says that all twice-born persons should make their yajñopavīta of cotton, of kṣumā, hair of cow's tail, hemp, tree bark or kuśa according to the availability of the material.⁶⁸⁷ The remarks of the Saṁskāramayūkha after quoting Manu II. 44 are interesting 'we do not know the origin of (or authority for) the practice of present-day kṣatriyas and vaiśyas, viz. of wearing cotton yajñopavīta'. This shows that in the 17th century A. D. many kṣatriyas and vaiśyas put on yajñopavīta.⁶⁸⁸ Kumārila also says that wearing yajñopavīta and studying Vedas is common to all the three varṇas.

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⁶⁸³ Vide स्मृत्यर्थसार p. 4 and सं. प्र. pp. 416-418 as to how the upavīta is to be manufactured and who is to manufacture it, one interesting fact being that an upavīta prepared by a maiden was to be preferred to one prepared by a widow. मदनरत्न quoted in the आचाररत्न defines ऊर्ध्ववृत्त in Manu II. 44 as 'करेण दक्षिणेनोर्ध्वगतेन त्रिगुणीकृतम् । वलितं मानवे शास्त्रे सूत्रमूर्ध्ववृतं स्मृतम्॥' (p. 2).

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⁶⁸⁴ कौशं सूत्रं वा त्रिवृच्चोर्ध्ववृद्यज्ञोपवीतम् । आ नाभेः । बौ. ध. सू. I. 5. 5-6; उक्तं देवलेन यज्ञोपवीतं कुर्वीत सूत्रेण नवतन्तुकम् । इति । स्मृतिच. I. p. 31.

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⁶⁸⁵ अथ प्रतितन्तु देवताभेदमाह देवलः । ओंकारः प्रथमस्तन्तुर्द्वितीयोऽग्निरस्तथैव च । तृतीयो नागदैवत्यश्चतुर्थो सोमदैवतः । पञ्चमः पितृदैवत्यः षष्ठश्चैव प्रजापतिः । सप्तमो वायुदैवत्यः सूर्यश्चाष्टम एव च ॥ नवमः सर्वदैवत्य इत्येते नव तन्तवः । स्मृतिच० I. p. 31

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⁶⁸⁶ कात्यायनस्तु परिमाणान्तरमाह । पृष्ठवंशे च नाभ्यां च धृतं यद्विन्दते कटिम् । तद्धार्यमुपवीतं स्यान्नातिलम्बं न चोच्छ्रितम् । ... ... देवलः । स्तनादूर्ध्वमधो नाभेर्न कर्तव्यं कथंचन । स्मृतिच० I. p. 31

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⁶⁸⁷ कार्पासक्षौमगोवालशणवल्कसृणोद्भवम् । 'सदा संभवतः कार्यमुपवीतं द्विजातिभिः ॥ स्मृतिच० I. p. 32 ; परा. मा. I. 2. p. 36; वृद्धहारीत (VIII. 47-48) has a similar verse.

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⁶⁸⁸ एवं च यदिदानींतनानां क्षत्रियवैश्यानां कार्पासोपवीतधारणं तत्र मूलं न विद्मः। संस्कारमयूख.

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The number of yajñopavītas to be worn differed according to circumstances. A brahmacārī was to wear only one yajñopavīta and saṁnyāsins, when they kept yajñopavīta at all, also wore only one. A snātaka⁶⁸⁹ (i. e. one who has returned from the teacher's house after brahmacarya) and a house-holder were to wear two while one who desired long life may wear more than two. Vas. Dh. S. XII. 14 says 'snātakas should always wear a lower garment and an upper one, two yajñopavītas, should have a stick and a pot filled with water'. Kaśyapa allowed a householder to wear any number up to ten. Whether yajñopavīta as worn in modern times was worn from the most ancient times or not, it is certain that long before the Christian era it had come to be so worn and it had become an inflexible rule that a brāhmaṇa must always wear a yajñopavīta and have his top-knot (of hair) always tied up; if he did any act without observing this rule, it was inefficacious.⁶⁹⁰ Vas.⁶⁹¹ and Baud. Dh. S. (II. 2. 1) both say that a man must always wear yajñopavīta. If a brāhmaṇa took his meals without wearing yajñopavīta, he had to undergo prāyaścitta viz. to bathe, to mutter prayers and fast; vide Laghu-Hārīta verse 23 quoted by Aparārka pp. 1171, 1173. The Mit. on Yāj. III. 292 prescribes prāyaścitta for answering calls of nature without having the yajñopavīta placed on the right ear (as Yāj. I. 16 prescribes). Manu IV. 66 forbids the wearing of another's yajñopavīta along with several other things (such as shoes, ornament, garland and kamaṇḍalu). In Yāj. (I. 16 and 133) and other smṛtis the yajñopavīta is called brahmasūtra.

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⁶⁸⁹ स्नातकानां तु नित्यं स्यादन्तर्वासस्तथोत्तरम् । यज्ञोपवीते द्वे यष्टिः सोदकश्च कमण्डलुः ॥ वसिष्ठ XII. 14; विष्णुधर्मसूत्र 71. 13-15 has similar rules; the verse of Vasiṣṭha is quoted by the Mit. on Yāj I. 133; compare मनु. IV. 36; एकैकमुपवीतं तु यतीनां ब्रह्मचारिणाम् । गृहिणां च वनस्थानामुपवीतद्वयं स्मृतम् । सोत्तरीयं त्रयं वापि बिभृयाच्छुभ्रतन्तु वा । वृद्धहारीत VIII. 44-45. Vide देवल quoted in स्मृतिच. I. p. 32 and त्रीणि चत्वारि पञ्चाष्ट गृहिणः स्युर्वशान्पि वा । सर्वैर्वा शुचिभिर्धार्यमुपवीतं द्विजातिभिः ॥ कश्यप quoted in the संस्कारमयूख.

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