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An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c14: 9 Geophysical Co-ordinates

An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c14

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9 Geophysical Co-ordinates

9.1 Black Cotton Soil

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Also called *regar*, this soil is formed as a result of weathering of the basaltic rocks, extensively spread over w. and c. India and the Deccan. The exact process of the weathering is little understood, but it may be partly due to the action of abundant humic acids in the soil formed under thick wild-grass and brushwood vegetation. The soil has a high degree of fertility in the plains but in the uplands and slopes of hills it is rather poor. It is largely used for growing cotton; hence its name. More often than not it is a highly-weathered pedocal. It is rich in iron oxide, alumina and lime. Much of the lime is found precipitated in the form of nodules in the illuvial zone of the soil. The depth of its weathered profile frequently goes down to 2 to 4 m or more. Its colour varies from 5 YR 3/2 dark reddish-brown to 2·5 YR 5/4 reddish-brown. Loamy and rich in clay and humus, it is retentive of moisture and sticky when wet. During winter and summer months it dries up, contracts, becomes hard and develops deep polygonal fissures, some of them measuring as much as 10 cm in breadth and 1 to 2 m in depth. Recent studies show that the soil was formed during the early part of the Holocene, under climatic conditions comparable to those of the present.

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Numerous Microlithic [4.5] and Chalcolithic [4.14] sites have been found on this soil. The bulk of artefacts is found on the surface of the soil, but a considerable amount is found deeply embedded within. It is now known that the artefacts find their way deep into the interstices of the soil through the fissures. The soil had been well-formed and mature much before the Mesolithic hunters came to the plains of Gujarat, Malwa and the Deccan. Excavations at JOKHA, NAVDATOLI, INAMGAON and a number of other sites show how the Chalcolithic peasants thrived on the soil.

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Allchin, B., Hegde, K.T.M., & Goudie, A., *Prehistory & Environment in w. India* (in press). Hedge, K.T.M., 1973, in *Ninth Congress International Union for Quaternary Research*, Christchurch. Krishnan, M.S., 1960, *Geology of India & Burma*, Madras. Raychaudhuri, S.P., 1960, *Land & Soil*, New Delhi—K.T.M. HEGDE

9.2 Deserts

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The desert or arid zone of India covers an area of 317090 km, of which 62% lies in Rajasthan, 20% in Gujarat, and the remaining 18% in Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The Dts lying wholly or largely in the arid zone are Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jalor, Jodhpur, Churu, Nagaur, Jhunjhunu and Sikar in Rajasthan, Kutch and Jamnagar in Gujarat, Ferozepore and Bhatinda in Punjab and Hissar in Haryana. Since the maximum area of arid zone in any single state lies in Rajasthan, this part of the desert has received the largest attention from researchers and is dealt with here.

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The e. boundary of the Rajasthan desert is formed by the Aravalli hills. There is no other major mountain range in the desert. In its s. and c. part—in Dts Jalor, Barmer and Jodhpur—low hills and inselbergs of granite and rhyolite occur. Around Jodhpur and to its n. are seen isolated outcrops of Vindhyan sandstone, and to its s. of limestone. In and around Jaisalmer occur flat-topped outcrops of marine shales, sandstones, clays, etc. Extensive rocky plains occur between Jayal and Nagaur, between Nagaur and Jodhpur, between Dhechu and Jaisalmer, and from Jaisalmer to about 50 km towards Barmer. Much of the desert however consists of a flat alluvial plain. In its w. and n. parts the plain is thickly covered with sand-dunes which rise up to a height of 50 m. Contrary to the popular image of the desert, large tracts are completely or very largely free from blown sand.

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Perhaps the most significant aspect of the desert is the absence or scarcity of surface water. In the s. part there is a network of seasonal rivers formed by the Luni and its tributaries all of which rise in the Aravallis and join the Luni, the latter losing itself in the sands of the Rann of Kutch. In the extreme n. is the dried-up bed of the Ghaggar/ŚRASVATĪ. Between these two rivers in an area of roughly 300 km n.-s. and 400 km e.-w. there is no stream channel of any consequence. There are however a large number of saline lakes of varying sizes which receive the drainage of neighbouring hills and dunes but remain dry for most part of the year. Even away from the lakes the subsoil water is often brackish. Sweet water is a scarce and precious commodity.

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Rainfall is both scarce and uncertain. It ranges from 450 mm in the e. to 100 mm in the n.-w. There are frequent failures of rain, leading to famine and large-scale migration of men and livestock. There is considerable seasonal and diurnal variation in temperature. The mean maximum temperatures in summer is 40°C but highest recorded temperatures reach up to 48 to 50°C. High temperatures and parched earth cause strong dust storms on several days during summer. In winter the mean minimum temperatures range between 3° and 8°C and lowest temperatures recorded are −4°C. Chilly winds blow during this season and frost occurs frequently.

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Because of low rainfall and lack of irrigation facilities winter cultivation is restricted. Only during the rainy seasons millets, lentils and other crops are grown. Both alluvial and sandy soils are however very fertile and in spite of low rainfall support good tree, shrub and grassy vegetation. Pastoralism is therefore an important part of the local economy. This also leads to nomadism as people have to move in search of fodder and water for their livestock. There are also certain habitually nomadic groups like the Vanvagri, the Kal-Beliya and the Shanshi who make a living by hunting-gathering, labour, petty crime and offering entertainment.

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The first significant archaeological discoveries in the desert were made by Stein in 1940-41 (Stein, 1942), when he located some early historical settlements along and on the dry bed of the Ghaggar in the then Bikaner state, now Dt Ganganagar, and in addition Harappa [4.9] sites in Bahawalpur state, now part of Pakistan, where the same river is known as the Hakra. Later, in 1950-52, Ghosh of the ASI carried out further exploration and trial diggings in the SARASVATĪ VALLEY and located some 25 Harappa [4.9], 20 PGW [4.15] and a large number of early historical [4.18.2] sites of what he called RANG MAHAL culture between Hanumangarh and Anupgarh (Ghosh, 1952). Excavation at RANG MAHAL itself was conducted by Hanna Rydh in 1953 (Rydh, 1959). Large-scale excavation at another site, KALIBANGAN, by Lal and Thapar of the ASI from 1961 to 1969 not only uncovered a large fortified Harappa settlement with the characteristic Harappa pattern of citadel and lower town but also an older fortified settlement of pre-Harappa [4.8] age. The pre-Harappa pottery turned out to the same as what had been found by Ghosh at SOTHI in the valley of the DṚṢADVATĪ, an affluent of the Sarasvatī, also now dry, and other sites.

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Explorations by the writer in the Luni and its tributaries in Pali. Dts Jodhpur, Barmer, Jalor and Sirohi from 1958 to 1961 produced evidence of two Stone Age cultures in s. part of the desert. The earlier phase was represented by diminutive and well-made handaxes, cleavers, scrapers, points, borers, knives and Levallois flakes and cores. These tools made of chert, jasper, agate, silicified wood and rhyolite occurred in the cemented sandy gravel of the rivers and on limestone outcrops between Sojat and Bilara. The second and younger industry was represented by microliths which occurred on top of sand-dunes and on limestone outcrops. The climatic sequence suggested by these deposits was: (a) rainfall higher than at present, more water in the rivers, sluggish streams and/or ponded situations, forming a clayey deposit; (b) sharp disconformity between the clay and overlying gravel, suggesting a period of erosion; (c) increased rainfall, more water in the rivers, formation of coarse sandy gravel, Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] man present; (d) reduced rainfall, graded stream beds, formation of silt; (e) highly arid conditions, formations of sand-dunes; and (f) amelioration in climate, microlithic [4.5] man appears.

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Excavation on a sand-dune at TILWARA in Dt Barmer by the writer in 1967 yielded a highly developed geometric microlithic industry, circular arrangements of stones suggesting outlines of wattle huts, bones of wild and domesticated animals, sling balls and stone hammers.

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In the winter of 1966-67 the writer and L.S. Leshnik explored the Luni valley from its source to its mouth in the Rann of Kutch in search of prehistoric farming settlements, but no such settlements were found.

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About this time Gurdip Singh carried out palynological studies in Lunkaransar, Didwana, Sambhar and Pushkar lakes [7.4] and propounded the following climatic sequence for end-Pleistocene and Holocene times: Phase I, before *c.* 10000 B P., arid climate, formation of sand-dunes. Phase II, *c.* 10000 to *c.* 9500 B.P., wet climate, formation of lakes, rainfall at least 25 cm more than present. Phase III, *c.* 9500 to *c.* 5000 B.P., slight decline in rainfall but freshwater lakes persist. The appearance of Cerealia-type pollen and considerable rise in carbonized vegetable remains in lake sediments is interpreted by him as suggesting the burning of vegetation by man for slash-and-burn agriculture. And Phase IV, *c.* 5000 to *c.* 3000 B.P , divisible into three sub-phases, IVa (*c.* 5000 to *c.* 3800 B.P.), IVb (*c.* 3800 to *c.* 3500 B.P.) and IVc (*c.* 3500 to *c.* 3000 B.P ). During sub-phase IVa rainfall increased considerably, being about 50 cm higher than at present. This period saw the emergence of pre-Harappa and Harappa civilizations in n. Rajasthan, and Singh believes that increased precipitation was one of the causative factors in this sudden cultural efflorescence. After 3500 B.P. rainfall began to decline and by about A.D. 1000 the present-day arid conditions were established.

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Between 1971 and 1976 a team consisting of B. Allchin of Cambridge Univ., A.S. Goudie of Oxford Univ. and K.T.M. Hegde of M.S. Univ. of Baroda carried out extensive field and laboratory studies for reconstructing the palaeoclimatic and archaeological history of the desert. Though they explored widely, their work was mainly concentrated on the dune sites at Pavagarh e. of Baroda, Budha Pushkar near Ajmer and Benara, e. of Jaipur. The major conclusions of their study are: (1) The active dunes today occur in Rajasthan only in the w. and n. Dts, w. of the 250 mm isohyet. Therefore the dunes are formed in a climate with annual rainfall of 250 mm or less. (2) Fossil dunes on the other hand occur over a much larger area, their e. limit defined by a line running from Pavagarh in the s., through Budha Pushkar and Benara in the centre to Hissar in the n., the annual rainfall along this line being roughly 900 mm at Pavagarh, 600 mm at Jaipur and 400 mm at Hissar. It follows therefore that in the past the rainfall along this line was 250 mm or less when the dunes were formed here. (3) There are two major phases of dune activity in the area, the first one occurring during the earlier part of the Upper Pleistocene [9.8.2], followed by a period of increased rainfall when the dune surfaces were deeply weathered to a brown colour by complete leaching of calcium carbonate. Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] man occupied this weathered surface in the Budha Pushkar basin. (4) This was followed by a second arid phase when fresh dunes were formed that covered the older weathered surface. The surface of these later dunes is covered with carbonate nodules and root casts formed by leaching due to increased rainfall after the dunes were formed. On this surface microlithic industries occur widely suggesting increased human occupation in response to an improved climate.

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Since 1977 a team comprising S.N. Rajaguru of the Deccan College, Ḍ.P. Agrawal of the Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, and the writer has been engaged in a project on the early man and his environment in n.-w. India. It has carried out extensive exploration in Dts Sirohi, Pali, Ajmer, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Jaisalmer, Barmer and Jalor for the study of the distribution, morphology and stratigraphy of sand-dunes, collection of geomorphic and sedimentological data from wells, river sections, quarries and dune cuttings, and location and excavation of early occupation sites. In the January-1980 fieldwork, the team was joined by Gurdip Singh, palynologist, and R.J. Wasson, geomorphologist, of the Australian National Univ., Canberra. The main findings of this team so far are as follows: (1) There is only one major phase of dune formation in w. Rajasthan. The manifestation of this phase is best seen in the w. part of Dts Jaisalmer and Barmer. (2) This arid phase was followed by a wet climate which led to considerable weathering and compacting of the dune surface. This weathered horizon seems to extend over the entire arid zone as it has been seen at such far-flung places as Budha Pushkar near Ajmer, Nawa on the n.-w. shore of Sambhar lake, Didwana, Dhechu s. of Phalodi, Sam w. of Jaisalmer, a point 50 km s. of Jaisalmer on the way to Barmer and several other places further s. and w. Although occasionally large flakes and cores are found on this weathered horizon, the industries most commonly associated with it are those of geometric microliths. (3) Near Jayal in Dt Nagaur a more than 10 km long and over 50 m high ridge of well-rounded pebbles and boulders of metamorphic quartzites has been located. The surface of this ridge has a thick concentration of Acheulian industry [4.2]. Acheulian tools also occur to a depth of 50 cm within the ridge (4) At Didwana a rich early Acheulian industry occurs in alluvial clayey and sandy deposits overlain by blown sand. (5) Stratigraphic observation and preliminary study of sediment samples collected from freshly dug wells in the Didwana lake suggest that the lake existed before 1000 years but it had a very fluctuating water regime.

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Finally scientists of the Central Arid Zone Research Inst., Jodhpur, especially the geomorphologists B. Ghose and S. Singh and pedologist R.P. Dhir, have collected over many years a large body of data on palaeochannels, palaeolandforms, and palaeosoils of the desert which is of great value in understanding the geomorphic and climatic history of the desert.

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After critically examining the evidence from multiple sources outlined above the following picture of the palaeoclimatic and archaeological history of the desert emerges. At this stage it is not possible to provide an absolute chronology to various events because only a few ¹⁴C dates are available for the end-Pleistocene and Holocene stages. These are obtained from the measurement of residual carbon in calcium carbonate—a technique which is still in experimental stages.

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1. At the end of Tertiary and the beginning of Quaternary periods w. Rajasthan was a basin through which flowed the drainage from the Himalayas as well as the Aravallis. Thick and extensive gravel formations as seen at Jayal in Dt Nagaur and at Mokhari s. of Phalodi in Dt Jodhpur strongly show that the rivers flowing through the desert were of considerable size and were carrying high discharges. This drainage slowly filled the basin with sediments of up to 100 m thickness. Evidence for this aggradation occurs all over the desert from Jayal in the e. through Dhechu in the c. to Dhanana and Gadra on the Pakistan border in the w. and Jalor in the s.

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2. Probably by the middle of the Middle Pleistocene the plain was already considerably aggraded. The drainage from the Himalayas seems to have started getting disorganized. In addition to a decline in rainfall, tectonic rise of land in the upper reaches of the rivers played a role in this process. The unusual height (70 m) of the Jalal gravel ridge above the present-day plain can hardly be explained except by invoking neotectonics. By the early Upper Pleistocene the drainage system of n. Rajasthan seems to have become totally defunct. Much of the evidence of this ancient drainage system has been completely obliterated by subsequent widespread aeolian aggradation and localized fluvial erosion and aggradation. But traces of these palaeochannels are visible on air photographs and landsat imageries and have been traced in Dts Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, and Barmer by scientists of the Central Arid Zone Research Inst. The fragments of these palaeochannels survive in Dts Ajmer and Nagaur between Kuchaman city and Got-Manglod e. of Jayal. During years of unusual rainfall the flood waters flow through these otherwise dry channels.

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3. Before this drainage system became totally extinct, Stone Age man had appeared in the region. The surface of the gravel ridge between Kathoti and Chajoli in Dt Nagaur is thickly littered with Acheulian tools in the form of handaxes, pebble tools, scrapers, flakes and cores. The extent of the area covered and the density of artefacts make it one of the richest Acheulian sites not merely in any arid region but in any climatic setting in the world. These same factors imply a long duration of occupation and also large populations in the area. Another Acheulian site occurs at Didwana. Here the artefacts occur at several localities embedded in a thick clayey deposit overlain by aeolian sand. There is no gravel in the deposit and the tools are fresh. These localities appear to be camp sites either on the banks of sluggishly flowing channels or along lake shores. The assemblages consist of handaxes, choppers, chopping tools, polyhedrons, scrapers and flakes. The general technological characters of the industries and the total absence of cleavers both at Jayal and Didwana imply an early stage for these industries.

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4. By the end of the Acheulian times or early upper Pleistocene the conditions in the n. part of w. Rajasthan seem to have become very dry and the drainage system totally disorganized. Stray traces of the Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] occur in the Jayal region, in the Bap Boulder Bed, and in palaeochannels near Jaisalmer suggesting that small human groups could locally survive in the desert even after the conditions had started becoming arid. The Luni system to the s., however, was not affected by the climatic change to the same degree and continued to function. The presence of a large number of late Acheulian to Middle Palaeolithic sites on limestone outcrops in the Bilara-Sojat region and in the cemented sandy gravels of the Luni and its tributaries suggests the shifting of human populations to the more congenial environment in the s. part of the desert.

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5. The later part of the Upper Pleistocene was a period of extreme aridity when strong aeolian activity took place, covering a considerable part of the alluvial plain with sand. A ¹⁴C date of *c.* 40000 B.P. from the base of the aeolian bed in a 4 m thick sequence of alternating fluvial and aeolian sediments near Tibna village, 15 km e. of Shergarh in Jodhpur, gives some idea of the age of this aridity. The source of the sand was the fine alluvial silty sand of the aggraded plain. Our extensive observations show that there is a very close relationship between the location of dunes and the availability of sand. Rocky and gravelly plateaux and plains with no source of sand supply in their close vicinity are completely free from dunes; on the other hand, alluvial plains with ample supply of fine sand are thickly covered with dunes. There is very little evidence to support the oft-repeated theory of the Rann of Kutch being the principal source of sand for the dunes of Rajasthan. This period was not however throughout uniformly arid; rather it was interrupted by several wet phases. A ¹⁴C date of *c.* 26000 B.P. from Malhar lake shows that the lake was carrying fresh water at this time. Similarly, in the Didwana lake below the sediments dated to *c.* 10000 B P there are several m thick sediments marked by alternating layers of sand, silty clay and a thick bed of salt, suggesting a very unstable climate before the Holocene. The alternating fluvial and aeolian sediments in the Tibna section referred to above also suggest a fluctuating dry and wet climate. The formation of a thick layer of calcium carbonate within the dune sand in the railway cutting at Didwana also suggests a wet episode during an otherwise long dry period.

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6. This arid period was followed by a period of distinctly wet climate. The most convincing evidence for this is provided by a moderately leached brown soil developed over the dune sand. This soil has been observed across the length and breadth of the desert—from Budha Pushkar in the e. to Sam, 45 km w. of Jaisalmer in the w., and from Dhechu s. of Phalodi in the n. to n. Gujarat in the s. Allchin *et al.* have correlated this weathered horizon with the Middle Palaeolithic phase and with the gravels of the Luni, on the basis of the presence of Middle Palaeolithic tools on this surface in the Budha Pushkar basin and in the Luni gravels. However, at many places—Budha Pushkar itself, Dhechu, Sam, and several points between Jaisalmer and Barmer—microlithic industries [4.5] are found on this surface. Sometimes larger and typologically older tools like choppers, scrapers and cores are associated with these industries. This makes the exact stratigraphic correlation and dating of this soil a complex question.

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7. Allchin *et al.* have postulated another significant dry phase following the weathering of the dunes of the earlier phase. During this second arid phase fresh dunes of several m thickness were formed over the dunes of the earlier phase. According to these authors Upper Palaeolithic [4.4] man was living in the area during this period. His tools, however, do not occur within the body of the dune but on the older weathered surface where they are believed to have slipped down the sand and got mixed with the Middle Palaeolithic tools. Upper Palaeolithic tools are also said to occur on the surface of the younger dunes mixed with the Mesolithic [4.5] tools. Our own observations however show that the younger dunes do not form more than a veneer of sand on the surface of the older brown weathered dunes and that microliths industries are associated with both older and younger dunes, more often with the former. At some sites however larger tools like choppers, scrapers and cores are associated with microliths. Even according to Allchin *et al.* the fact that the Upper Palaeolithic tools occur in association with Middle Palaeolithic tools on the older dunes and with microlithic tools on the younger dunes shows that there is a common cultural element on both dunes. The difference between Allchin *et al.* and our team is therefore less of observation and more of interpretation.

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8. There is, however, clear evidence for a marked shift towards wet climate at the beginning of the Holocene [9.8.4]. This period is well-documented in the form of pollen-rich thick clay sediments in Didwana and several other lakes, and its onset is dated by ¹⁴C to *c.* 10000 B.P. According to Allchin *et al.* this wet phase is represented on the younger dunes in the form of calcium carbonate concretions and root casts formed by leaching from sand in a moist climate. It is with this wet phase that these authors associate the arrival of the makers of microlithic industries. Several ¹⁴C dates obtained from these concretions at Budha Pushkar range between 6500 and 3000 B.P.

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9. Of considerable interest is Gurdip Singh’s correlation of the climatic picture with archaeology. According to him the presence of *Cerealia*-type pollen and increasing amount of carbonized vegetable remains in the lake sediments between 9500 and 5000 B.P. is evidence for human clearing of vegetation and slash-and-burn type agriculture in the desert. He further considers the evidence of another increase in rainfall between 5000 and 3500 B.P. responsible for the rise and flourishing of pre-Harappa and Harappa civilizations in Rajasthan and neighbouring areas. Archaeological evidence however does not support these hypotheses. In spite of intensive search over more than last two decades by several workers no evidence of even rudimentary village settlements, let alone urban settlements, has been found anywhere in the desert outside the Ghaggar valley. The only evidence of the Chalcolithic period in the desert is a copper hoard [4.11] from KHURDA in Dt Nagaur and a solitary copper celt from ELANA on the Jawai river n. of Jalor. There are not even any settlements of the PGW and NBPW [11.16]. The sites that could date from the beginning of the Christian era and immediately after it are few and far between. These include SAMBHAR in Dt Ajmer, Bhinmal and Dhanpur in Dt Jalor and Barawas near Tilwara in Dt Barmer.

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It can be said therefore that the pattern of economy based on hunting-gathering and pastoralism which developed in Rajasthan around 7000 B.P. as suggested by the archaeological evidence from BAGOR and TILWARA and the ¹⁴C dates from Bagor continued to persist until about 2000 years ago and does so to some extent to this day. Permanent settlements based on agriculture began to appear only after 2000 B.P. The stimulus for the colonization of the desert by agriculturists was provided by the pressure of population in more favourable areas on the margins of the desert, for example n.-e. Rajasthan, where agricultural way of life was established before 1000 B.C. during the OCW [4.12] phase. The amelioration in climate during the Holocene did not play any role in inducing farmers to colonize the desert. The birth and flourishing of pre-Harappa, Harappa, PGW and Rang Mahal cultures in the Ghaggar valley would appear to have been determined by the fluctuations ir the hydrology of the river which in turn were controlled by geomorphic factors operating in the Himalayas and the Indo-Ganga Divide as suggested by Raikes, 1968. There is no evidence to credit the improvement in climate for the rise of these cultures on the fringe of the desert and on a river course fed by the perennial snows of the Himalayas.

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Allchin, B., Goudie, A., & Hegde, K.T. M., *Prehistory & Palaeogeography of the Great Indian Desert*, London. Ghosh, A., in *Bull. National Inst. of Sciences in India*, 1, pp. 37-42. Misra, V.N., 1977, in Jaiswal, P.L., ed., *Desertification & its Control*, New Delhi, pp. 10-24. Misra, V.N., Rajaguru, S.N., Agrawal, D.P., Thomas, P.K., Hussain, Z., & Datta, P.S., 1980, in *Man & Environment*, 4, pp. 19-31. Raikes, R.L., 1968, in *Antiquity*, 42, pp. 286-91. Rydh, H., 1959, *Rang Mahal*, Lund. Singh, G., 1971, in *Arch. and Physical Anthropology in Oceania*, 4, 2, pp. 178-89. Singh, G., & Ghose, B., 1977, in Agrawal, D.P., & Pande, B.M., ed., *Ecology & Arch. of w. India*, pp. 135-46. Stein, A., 1942, in *Geographical Jour.*, 99 pp. 173-82. For sites see respective entries in vol. II—V.N. MISRA

9.3 Earthquakes

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Earthquake is a convulsion of earth’s surface due to tectonic movements and violent eruptions. Earthquakes are responsible for considerable structural devastations and at times change in the landscape also. Due to the convulsions or tremors, buildings and their foundation strata are affected.

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In excavations in the subcontinent evidence regarding earthquakes is reported from two sites. The first instance is available at KALIBANGAN in the pre-Harappa [4.8] levels when a subsidence of strata caused by an earthquake could be clearly seen in one of the sections of a trench in KLB-1 mound. This earthquake perhaps occurred at the close of the pre-Harappa occupation on that mound.

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The second evidence of earthquake is recorded from Sirkap (Taxila). Marshall says, ‘Many of the buildings in the second stratum were destroyed by earthquake about A.D. 30 and rebuilt by Parthians’ (Marshall, 1951). He builds up the structural chronology of Sirkap on this hypothesis, which is not established on solid grounds.

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Although cracks in structures, dislodged masonry and collapsed walls met with in many excavations have sometimes been ascribed to earthquakes, the evidence is shaky.

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Marshall, J., 1951, *Taxila*, Cambridge.—MADHU BALA

9.4 Floods

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Heavy rainfall, melting of snow on the mountains, tectonic movements, cyclones, silting up of estuaries, deforestation and climatic variations are some of the factors that cause floods in rivers generally during the rainy season or in winter. Myths ascribe the devastation by floods to man’s sinful activities and divine wrath, as in the Epic of Gilgamesh and the story of Noah. Ancient Indian literature and traditions particularly the *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa* and the Purāṇas refer particularly to the occurrence of two floods. The earlier of these is said to have occurred in a very large scale covering vast territories and causing wholesale destruction. The latter occurred in a limited area confined to the upper reaches of the Ganga.

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Excavations at Mohenjo-daro have revealed that the city was flooded many times by the Indus. Sahni, 1956, noticed huge silt deposits at an unusual height near Hyderabad which he thought might be result of floods in the Indus due to tectonic upheavals. [Lambrick, 1967, however pointed out that what was regarded as silt by Sahni was nothing but decomposed mud bricks.] Raikes, 1964, thought that an uplift of the land down the Indus caused the blocking of the river and hence the drowning of Mohenjo-daro several times during its lifetime. Dales [1977] has pointed out the highest of these perched strata of flood deposit is some 30 ft (9·14 m) above the plain level. Evidence of floods could be traced from the different levels of the excavated area of Mohenjo-daro (Wheeler, 1968). The artificial packing and the building of platforms for structures in the later levels indicate that they were made to protect the settlement against floods. The silt deposits at other Harappa sites such as Jhukar and Lohumjo-daro could also indicate the same type of flooding. (The pre-Harappa, [4.8], settlement of KALIBANGAN is believed to have ceased to exist as a result of a flood in the SARASVATĪ, which left a thin deposit of sand.)

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Excavations at LOTHAL have shown that this Harappa port town was destroyed by floods at least four times but the inhabitants reconstructed it after each calamity and settled down again (Rao, 1973). The earliest phase of occupation having a deposit of 1·40 m in thickness was washed away by a flood. The flood of *c.* 2000 B.C. destroyed the habitation and the inhabitants took antiflood measures by raising a platform, but in *c.* 1900 B.C. a prolonged flood devastated the settlement again. Rao has suggested that similar floods devastated the coastal Harappa settlements at KOTH, RANGPUR, DESALPAR and BHAGATRAV.

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In Sub-pd II A of RANGPUR (*AI*, 18 and 19, 1962 and 1963, p. 15) there was a huge flood which is evident in a thick deposit of flood-borne debris.

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Excavation at CHANDIGARH has revealed that the remains were overlain by a 1·50 m thick deposit of alluvium, probably ascribable to a flood which might have totally devastated the settlement.

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In Sub-pd I A at BHAGWANPURA the late Harappans on their arrival raised mud platforms in two successive phases to get a high area for building up their settlement against the flood waters of the SARASVATĪ. After an accumulation of the deposit of 70 to 80 cm the late Harappa occupation was destroyed by a gigantic flood, its evidence available in all the excavated trenches. In spite of this the late Harappans continued to live at the site. In Sub-pd I B after a deposit of 15 to 20 cm which has yielded both the PGW [11.14] and late Harappa [11.4] pottery, the occupation was damaged again by a flood which washed away a major portion of the habitational area. In spite of this calamity both the late Harappans and the PGW people continued to live at the site.

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At DADHERI the late Harappans of Sub-pd I A had their settlements over solid rammed mud platforms, evidently as a measure of flood protection. Evidence of scouring of the habitation of Sub-pd I A and deposit of silt and flood debris is well-recorded in the section of the deepest trench at this site.

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It has been argued that the rolled condition of sherds of the OCW [11.5] at ATRANJIKHERA, BAHADRABAD, JHINJHANA, etc., are due to the fact that they remained in waterlogged areas due to the heavy flooding in the habitational deposits (Lal, 1968).

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After an initial destruction of the Chalcolithic [4.14.5] site of MANAOTI by floods the habitation was protected by a huge mud brick wall. Another major flood indicated by a thick sandy gravel once more affected the site.

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The end of Pd I of PANDU RAJAR DHIBI was brought about by a flood in the Ajay river evidenced by a 50 cm thick buffish silt deposit overlying the strata of the Pd.

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The 2 m thick deposit of the PGW of Pd II at HASTINĀPURA was largely washed by a flood in the river Ganga and this led to the desertion of the site for some time.

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Pd II of KAUṆḌINYAPURA is marked by a sterile layer which perhaps represents a flood deposit. In the earliest phase of Pd I of MASAON a sand deposit 2·5 cm thick indicates a flood.

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The site at NAGAL of the black-and-red ware [4.13] culture was occasionally encroached upon by the river Narmada on the n. tip of the mound where a regular dyke of black soil was raised with a ditch on the other side, perhaps to ward off the floods of the river.

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In Sub-pd I A of RAJGHAT deposits of sand and silt against the toe of the mud rampart indicate that it was subjected to flooding many times.

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Evidence of floods at UJJAIN during the pre-NBPW and NBPW [11.16] Pds is well recorded. The first settlers at the site (Pd I, pre-NBPW) made a massive fortification wall of compact whitish clay laid in bands separated by sticky dark clay with charcoal for the protection of the city from destruction by flood. Due to constant floods the rampart was heavily damaged and only patches mixed with flood debris were found during the excavation. In Pd II the fortification on the river side was again damaged by floods at least on three occasions. The first breach was repaired by the construction of 4·60 m wide brick revetment over a raised level of the rampart. In the second flood this was again damaged, leaving only 11 courses of brick. This was once more repaired by the massing of clay over the damaged portions of the revetment. The floods were massive and the sand and silt deposits could be seen in the habitation area also.

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Excavation at BALIRAJGARH revealed that the defence wall belonging to 2nd century B.C. and remaining in use till the Pāla period in its third phase of construction witnessed further reinforcement necessitated by heavy floods as evidenced by silt deposits.

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During Pd III at BAHAL there was a huge flood which could be identified by the sterile deposits of sand in several bands.

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A flood deposit of 3·20 m thickness at BUXAR could be traced in Pd II of the early centuries A.D. This heavy flood washed away most of the occupational strata.

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At PAITHAN a thick deposit of mud and silt with a height of 1·22 m noticed in the Sātavāhana period was perhaps the result of a heavy flood.

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In Phase II A of SHAMALAJI the fortification wall of the Kṣatrapa period could have collapsed probably due to flood or some other calamity.

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Pd II of URAIYUR (c. 4th-6th, 7th century A.D.) contained alternate deposits of hard clay, sand and pebbles which indicates the occurrence of floods and water-logging at the site.

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Dales, G.F., 1966, in *Scientific American*, 241, 5, pp. 92-100. Lal, B.B., 1968, in *American Anthropologist*, 70, pp. 857-68. Lambrick, H.T., 1967, in *Geographical Jour.*, 133, 4, pp. 483-95. Possehl, G.L., 1979, ed., *Ancient Cities of the Indus*, New Delhi. Raikes, R.L., 1964, in *American Anthropologist*, 66, 2, pp. 284-99. Raikes, R.L., & Dales, G.F., 1977, in *Jour. Palaeontological Soc. of India*, 20, pp. 251-60. Rao, S.R., 1973, *Lothal & the Indus Civilization*, Bombay. Sahni, M.R., 1956, in *Jour. Palaeontological Soc. of India*, 1, pp. 101-7. Wheeler, M., 1968, *Indus Civilization*, Cambridge. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—MADHU BALA

9.5 Fossil Sand-dunes

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Two well-known groups of fossil sand-dunes are met with in the archaeological context. The first is the *teri* and the second the LANGHNAJ group.

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The *teri* group has been studied in slightly greater detail than the other. The word *teri* in Tamil would mean sandy waste. At the same time a lake is called *eri* and wasteland *tei*; as such *teri* may also possibly mean ‘wasted lake’. If so it rightly signifies the origin of these sites. During the post-Pleistocene period [9.8.4] there was a series of marine regressions and aggressions in the s.most end of the e. coast. An emergence of 13·7 m has been calculated on the basis of the fossils of species of pectern and oysters found 5 m above the coastline at Tuticorin. These are the species which are now found at about the 5 fathom line. Simultaneously tree trunks have been found under shallow water. In fact Ceylon got connected and disconnected with India several times. While the aggressions were minor in nature, the regressions were more substantial. The formation of the *teris* was therefore based on the resultant regression. Series of *teri* sites occur in a line, each series almost equidistant from the sea. The most inland *teris* are therefore the earliest ones. The sand-dunes are of aeolian origin. Below the shifting sands of the dunes which are of subrecent origin occur soils in two horizons, A and B, A being a completely immature soil and B seemingly slightly older.

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The *teri* industry is found on the surface of the B horizon where the A horizon has been blown away. Thus the horizon for the *teri* industry proper appears to be either at the junction of the two horizons or belongs more to the A horizon. The latter alternative seems to be more probable as the industry is found in clusters as if it had been put there after getting the contents sieved. The industry certainly appears to be slightly older than the other Mesolithic industries [4.5]. Its dating, 4000 B.C., has been arrived at by the sea-level changes, assigning to it the Late Atlantic, i.e. the last of the marine terraces, though the calculation is not based on the study of the Indian Ocean or the Bay of Bengal. Similar industries are found in Ceylon, where, on the basis of typology only, they have been associated with the Neolithic complex. [cf. SAWYERPURAM.]

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The LANGHNAJ group has also been formed under more or less similar circumstances. Situated in Dt Mahesana in the sandy alluvial plain of n. and c. Gujarat there are clusters of these sites. On a desertic plain around fresh-water lakes sand banks have formed. In these fossil sand banks has been found a microlithic industry [4.5]. At Langhnaj this industry is not properly stratified except in the change of colour and compactness of the sand deposits. At the top occur microliths and iron objects. Below this a copper knife was found. The pre-pottery part of the industry cannot be properly isolated. The industry is however important in having human skeletons in semifossilized stage [15.2] and the remains of rhinoceros [15.1]. Even though ¹⁴C dating on the basis of burnt bone puts this industry to 2000 B.C. it would appear to be contemporary with the *teri* industry if the pre-pottery microlithic horizons can be truly isolated and identified.

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Hegde, K.T.M., 1977, in Agrawal, D.P., & Pande, B.M., ed., *Ecology & Arch. of w. India*, Delhi, pp. 169-80. Kalyanasundaram, V., 1943, in *Indian Geographical Jour.*, 18. Sankalia, H.D., 1974, *Prehistory & Protohistory of India & Pakistan*, Poona, p. 241. Spate, O.H.K., 1960, *India & Pakistan*, London. Zeuner, F.E., & Allchin, B., 1956, in *AI*, 12, pp. 4-20 (for *teris* in Dt Tirunelveli). For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—K.D. BANERJEE

9.6 Laterites

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The term laterite was coined by Buchanan in 1807 to describe a brick-like (Latin *later*, brick) geological formation in Kerala. The first palaeolith in India was discovered by Foote in a laterite gravel at PALLAVARAM near Madras in 1863 [4.2]. Subsequently the laterite has been studied as a source of economic minerals (iron, manganese, aluminium), as a product of tropical weathering, as an indicator of palaeoclimate and by archaeologists as an important tool-bearing formation. Indurated laterite which occurs widely in India, S.-E. Asia, Africa, Australia and s. America has been variously described as duricrust, ferricrete, plinthite, cuirasse and lateritic iron-stone. Unconsolidated lateritic soils have been classified as oxisols or latsols. In India 'lateritic' has been proposed for tool-bearing laterite gravels. Geologically primary laterite is a product of the sub-aerial weathering of ferruginous or aluminous rocks, e.g. basalt, granite, quartzite, limestone, even fluvial gravels, etc. Laterites are widely distributed in semihumid intertropical regions. Low relief where weathering exceeds the pace of surface erosion, seasonal rainfall of more than 1000 mm per annum, mild fluctuations in the water-table and evergreen or savanna vegetation favour laterite formation. Fossil laterites are found in arid and even temperate regions. The process of lateritization is slow, involving the leaching of bases, concentration of iron both by capillary action and lateral contribution from adjacent iron-rich weathering zones. A typical laterite profile comprises the crust overlying the mottled and pallid zone (lithomarge) with the weathered parent material at the base. Hydrated oxides of iron and alumina predominate in the crust and kaolinite in the lithomarge. Secondary laterites comprise reconsolidated debris from the older laterites, with or without material derived from other rocks. In India primary and secondary laterites occur both on high-level plateaux and coasts. Primary laterites date from the Cretaceous to the Early Pleistocene (?), while secondary (tool-bearing) valley and slope laterites are not older than the Middle Pleistocene [9.8.2]. Archaeologically remnant laterites on Tertiary erosional surfaces, pseudokarstic caves in indurated laterites and the older alluvial laterite gravels provide evidence for Late Pleistocene Palaeolithic [4.2] settlements, particularly in e., c., and s. India and parts of coastal Maharashtra. Fossil laterites underlying non-lateritized Middle-Upper Pleistocene tool-bearing gravels in the c. Narmada valley, n. Gujarat and the semi-arid zones of the Karnataka and Maharashtra plateaux are suggestive of a more humid palaeoclimate.

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The laterite plantation surfaces (100 to 10 m above sea level) observed along the coasts of Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu indicate changes in Quaternary land-sea relationships [9.10]. The geochemistry of laterite-like formations overlying non-lateritized tool-bearing gravels at VADAMADURAI near Madras has disproved the evidence for a Lower Palaeolithic occupation of the site during the Early or pre-Pleistocene periods.

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Ghosh, A.K., 1966, in Sen, D., & Ghosh, A.K., ed., *Studies in Prehistory*, Calcutta. Goudie, A., 1973, *Duricrusts in Tropical & Subtropical Landscapes*, Oxford. Lal, S.B., 1973, in Agrawal, D.P., & Ghosh, A., ed., *Radiocarbon & Indian Arch.*, Bombay, (for geochronology of laterites). Maignien, R., 1966, *Review of Research on Laterites*, Paris. Pascoe, E.H., 1962, *A Manual of the Geology of India & Burma*, 3, Delhi. Rajaguru, S.N., & Guzder, S.J., 1973, in *Bull. Deccan College*, 32, pp. 193-207 (for Quaternary sea level changes and archaeological sites). Roy Chowdhury, Anandaiwar, M.A., & Paul, D.K., 1965, in *Proc. National Inst. Sciences of India*, A, 31 (6) pp. 547-58 (for origin of Indian laterite). For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—S.N. RAJAGURU

9.7 Miliolites

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Miliolite limestones or Porbandar stones, as they are popularly called, are white, porous rocks, sufficiently hard to be useful as building material. They are composed of large proportions of calcium carbonate (up to 99%) and detrital sand. The carbonate is made up of the tests of various Foraminifera, mainly Miliolids and Rotalids and hence the rocks are named miliolites. Deposits occur mainly in Kutch and Kathiawar. Within Kathiawar they are of wide extent in the coastal area near Porbandar and Veraval and frequently attain a thickness of 30 m or more. They also occur inland near Rajkot, Junagadh and Sihor.

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The origin of miliolites which has an important palaeo-environmental and prehistoric relevance is a controversial question. Many workers have regarded their composition of marine carbonate fragments as evidence of their origin in a shallow, warm, littoral marine environment. Others have postulated that they are aeolianites—calcareous wind-blown deposits. Some have proposed that they could be of both marine and aeolian origin, the marine formations occurring near the sea coast and the aeolian ones occurring in inland situations. The inland deposits were produced by the deflation of marine carbonate deposits, exposed in the intertidal and supratidal zones of a warm, shallow sea. The deflated materials were transported inland by wind and deposited against topographical barriers. Such extensive aeolian activity, as is the case with the sand-dunes of n. Gujarat and Rajasthan [9.2], would have required low rainfall conditions and a slight vegetation cover possibly combined with low glacial sea-levels. Today miliolite deposits show typical honeycomb weathering on their surface.

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Over some of the inland deposits upper Palaeolithic [4.4] sites have been found. These sites suggest that the miliolites were formed and stabilized before the upper Palaeolithic hunters came into the picture. [In 9.8.2 the stratigraphy, from bottom upwards, is stated to be as follows: (1) a fluvial deposit with Lower Palaeolithic tools, overlain by (2) the earlier miliolite formation (M₁) which is followed by (3) another fluvial deposit with Middle Palaeolithic tools, which in turn is capped by (4) a second miliolite formation (M₂).]

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Agrawal, D.P., & Roy, B., 1977, in Agrawal, D.P., & Pande, B.M., ed., *Ecology & Arch. of w. India*, Delhi, pp. 217-23, and three other articles in *ibid.*, ch. 5.—K.T.M. HEGDE

9.8 Quaternary Age

9.8.1 Plio-Pleistocene boundary

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The boundary separating the Pleistocene from the preceding Pliocene is a much debated subject both in India and elsewhere. Recent work on sea sediments has thrown welcome light on this problem and there appears to be a considerable agreement in placing the Plio-Pleistocene boundary at about two million years ago. Ericson and Wollin, 1966, have shown that the boundary is marked by the following: (i) extinction of discosters which had abounded for the preceding 75 million years; (ii) first appearance of *Globoratalia truncatulinoides*; (iii) extinction of *Globigerinoides sacculiferon fistulosa* above the boundary; and (iv) appearance of a uniform lineage of *G. menardii*. Significantly enough, this boundary is also marked by a geomagnetic event, the Olduvai Normal, during the Matuyama Reversed Epoch (Leakey, 1965). Zeuner, 1959, suggested that the appearance of Villefranchian fauna (*Equus*, *Bos* and *Elephas*) and the appearance of the first major glaciation (Alpine Günz) marked the Plio-Pleistocene boundary on land.

v1.c14.s8.t1.2

The Kashmir glacial cycle has been correlated with the Potwar sequence by de Terra and Paterson, 1939. They assigned the Dhok Pathan beds to the Pliocene and Tatrot to the Lower Pleistocene because of the occurrence of *Equus* and *Elephas* in the latter beds. Later on more detailed work by Sahni and Khan, 1959, produced *Equus sivalensis*, *E. cautleyi*, *Hypselaphus hysudricus* and *Bubalus platyceros* from the Pinjaur zone and on this basis they assigned it to the Lower Pleistocene and Tatrot to the Upper Pliocene.

v1.c14.s8.t1.3

Badam, 1972, has reported *Sivatherium giganteum*, *Bos* sp., *Sus* sp., *Giraffa* sp., *Elephas hysudricus*, *Equus sivalensis*, etc., around the Zangam plateau from the *karewa* beds of Kashmir and on this basis assigns them to the Lower Pleistocene.

v1.c14.s8.t1.4

No radiometric dates are available for any Indian formations. Porter, 1970, working in Swat Kohistan (Pakistan) reports only a threefold glacial sequence, whereas the Geological Survey workers report an eight-fold sequence. For a firmer definition of the Plio-Pleistocene boundary further work is necessary.

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Badam, G.L., 1972, in *Current Science*, 41, pp. 529-30. De Terra, H., & Paterson, T.T., 1939, *Studies on the Ice Age in India & Associated Human Cultures*, Washington. Ericson, D.B., & Wollin, G., 1966, *The Deep and the Past*; 1968, in *Science*, 162, pp. 1227-34. Leakey, L.S.B., 1965, *Olduvai Gorge 1951-61*, 1. Porter, S.C., 1970, in *Bull. Geological Soc. of America*, 81, pp. 1421-40. Sahni, M.R., & Khan, 1959, in *Jour. Palaeontological Soc. of India*, 4, pp. 61-74 (for Kashmir boundary). Vishnu-Mittre, 1963, in *Palaeobotanist*, 12, pp. 270-6 (also for Kashmir). Zeuner, F.E., 1959, in *Proc. Pan African Congress on Prehistory*, pp. 55-9.—D.P. AGRAWAL

9.8.2 Pleistocene

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The Quaternary system in India has a far more varied development than all the earlier geological systems. It covers nearly 650000 sq km of n. India under river deposits (Ganga-Yamuna basin). Further there are long stretches of contemporaneous ice deposits in the Himalayas, desert and lateritic, littoral, lacustrine, riverine and subserial accumulations in other parts of the country.

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Although the Pleistocene glacial studies in the sub-Himalayan areas were initiated a 100 years ago the work of Dainelli really laid the foundation for the proper understanding of the glacial succession in the n.-w. Himalayas, when a fourfold glacial succession was recognized in the mountains flanking the Kashmir basin—a record presumed to be parallel to that of the Alps in Europe.

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De Terra and Paterson who conducted systematic investigations in the Kashmir basin and the Potwar plateau endorsed the fourfold glacial sequence worked out earlier. They did not find any Stone Age site within the Kashmir basin, though such sites were discovered in the valley of the Sohan [4.2], a tributary of the Indus river in the Potwar region of Pakistan. A series of five terraces [9.9] was recognized on the Sohan; the topmost surface cut into the Boulder Conglomerate was placed in the Second Glaciation (i.e. in Mid-Pleistocene). The successive lower terraces thus belonged to Second Interglacial (T₁), Third Glacial (T₂), Third Interglacial (T₃), Fourth Glacial (T₄) and Postglacial (T₅). Lithic industries have been found on the terraces [4.2].

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