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Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1: Volume 1

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1

Language
English

Contents

Volume 1

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India

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VOL. 1 ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

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गुरुकुल कांगड़ी विश्वविद्यालय कृपया पुस्तक के ऊपर कोई निशान आदि न लगायें।

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पुस्तकालय गुरुकुल कांगड़ी विश्वविद्यालय, हरिद्वार

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वर्ग संख्या . . . . . आगत संख्या . . . . .

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पुस्तक-विवरण की तिथि नीचे अंकित हैं। इस तिथि सहित ३०वें दिन यह पुस्तक पुस्तकालय में वापिस आ जानी चाहिए। अन्यथा ५० पैसे प्रति दिन के हिसाब से विलम्ब-दण्ड लगेगा।

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Minerals and Metals

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in

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Volume I Archaeological Evidence

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Arun Kumar Biswas

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D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd.

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NEW DELHI-110015

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**Cataloging in Publication Data — DK** Biswas, Arun Kumar, 1934 - Minerals and Metals in Ancient India. Includes bibliographical references. Includes index.

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1. Minerals -- India, Ancient. 2. Metals -- India, Ancient. 3. Metallurgy -- India, Ancient. I. Biswas, Sulekha. II. Title.

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ISBN 81-246-0048-1 (set) ISBN 81-246-0049-X (vol.1)

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First Published in India in 1996 © Prof. Arun Kumar Biswas, 1994

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No reproduction or translation of this book or part thereof in any form, except brief quotations, should be made without the written permission of the Author and Publishers.

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Published by : D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd. Regd. office : ‘Shri Kunj’, F-52, Bali Nagar New Delhi - 110015 Phone : (011) 546-6019; Fax : (011) 546-5926

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Printed by : Rainbow Processors and Printers, New Delhi-110 028 (Ph. 546 7547)

Preface

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The primary credit for the compilation of this monograph goes to the Indian National Science Academy (INSA), History of Science Division, which financially sponsored our project for the period September 1987 to March 1991. Two scholars were employed for this project and they assisted me in collecting and collating the basic reference materials.

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Ever since India attained her independence, the subject of history of science has evoked enthusiasm. The INSA created its special division and funded research. During my student days (1950-52), the Bachelor's level programme in Chemistry included a course on history of chemistry. At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT, U.S.A.) where I worked during 1960-63, the subject of archae-metallurgy was being nurtured by the famous physical metallurgist Prof. C.S. Smith whose work on Damascus sword is well-known. Today the developed nations in the West are spending huge amounts of money for sophisticated instruments and still more sophisticated brains to unravel the mysteries of archae-materials.

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I published my first book *Science in India* in 1969. Even though I had the latent ambition of working in the field of archae-materials, my professional pre-occupations at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kanpur did not permit me to do anything worthwhile till the Hindustan Zinc Limited (HZL), Udaipur invited me in 1982 to work on the ancient zinc slags. Our findings, together with those of the international team of experts led by Dr. Hegde and Dr. Craddock, are reported in the chapter 18 of Volume I. Our work on this monograph was started in September 1987.

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We have divided our monograph into two Volumes. Volume I has 21 chapters on the archaeological evidences (foreigners' travel accounts also noted) showing the use of minerals and metals in ancient India, the period provisionally ending in AD 1200. The evidences from the Sanskrit literature are compiled in the 10 chapters of Volume II.

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Out of the 21 chapters in Volume I, 11 are devoted to the findings in the specifically excavated sites which are chronologically discussed starting from Mehrgarh (chapter 2) to Taxila (chapter 14). We have naturally made copious extracts from the earlier reports. The readers would notice however we have not necessarily accepted all the ‘conclusions’ recorded by the esteemed path-finders such as John Marshall, Mortimer Wheeler, D.P. Agrawal, N.R. Banerjee, etc.

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In our critical surveys we have entered into controversial topics and asserted on the following independent and occasionally original viewpoints:

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(a) there is no acceptable proof that any foreign invading group, such as the mythical Aryans, brought from outside to India any material culture such as those related to copper, iron or PGW.

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(b) chalcolithic culture in the pre-Harappan Mehrgarh precludes the possibility or necessity of any elaborate technology transfer from Iran to the Harappan India.

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(c) the advent of the Iron Age took place in India around twelfth century BC indigenously in three widely apart geographical contexts, and therefore, the diffusionist theory regarding Hittite (or ‘Aryan’) influence seems to be far-fetched.

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(d) the primacy of India in the areas of non-ferrous ore mining, production of carburised iron, laminated iron sheets, wootz, steel, forge-welding of wrought iron, zinc as a distillation product, high-zinc brass, diamond and other gems, etc. in the international scenario can no longer be questioned.

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(e) in several areas we have borrowed materials or traditions from outside: lapis lazuli, turquoise, emerald (possible import following earlier traditions related to beryl), advances in the techniques of statuary, coin-casting and gem incrustations, cementation precipitation of copper from mine-water using iron powder, etc.

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The acknowledgements in (e) should serve as a pointer that our assertions in (a) to (d) are not motivated by any sense of chauvinism.

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The compilations of the literary evidences in Volume II follow the chronological sequence as in Volume I and highlight the fact that whereas correlations between the literary and archaeological data are evident in some cases (Pāṇini, Kauṭilya, Varāhamihira, etc.) there are serious discrepancies in the case of the epics. Since the archaeological dates of Hastināpur, Ayodhyā, etc. have been scientifically derived, we have questioned the traditional beliefs regarding the dates of the composition of the epics. If any further evidence is required to convince the readers that we are not chauvinistic, they might turn to chapter 10 of Volume II wherein we have contraposed the literary claims with archaeological data and historical facts, and furthermore placed the irrational trends in the Indian tradition side by side with the rational and positive aspects of Indian science.

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This monograph contains 62 tables, 24 figures and 5 appendices. Scientific informations on the minerals in appendix ‘A’ may be of special help to some readers.

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This monograph is not an exhaustive survey; we have endorsed to the readers specific texts on ceramics, pottery, glass, coins, etc. for supplementary reading. We have laid greater emphasis on the raw material aspects such as mines, minerals, gems, process metallurgy, etc. The other aspects of material engineering such as lapidary, fabrication, casting, forging, heat-treatment, etc. have been discussed but need deeper studies; many simulation or replication experiments need to be done in the laboratories before anybody could write a comprehensive book on the fabrication of materials in ancient India.

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Acquisition and cataloguing of more reliable data are as important as philosophy and methodology of science. First-rate scientific analyses of the ancient Indian artefacts are being done in many foreign laboratories but such quality work is yet to be done in India. The gap between the archaeologist and the material scientist in our country is too wide and must be bridged as soon as possible.

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I hope to extend my work beyond the ancient period of Indian history and to cover the pre-modern period of AD 1200-1900. I have articulated my vital concern for the sociology, methodology and philosophy of science in my book Science in India and in several chapters of present work (such as chapter 10 of Volume II). The nexus between science, technology and ancient society must be discovered; the conclusions must be well-grounded on the solid rock of facts and more facts, the cataloguing of which need not be unnecessarily vituperated, as done by some scholars.

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How could modern science emerge in Europe first but not in India is a million-dollar question which should receive our deepest attention. The lessons from the past should help us in the future, and to that extent I earnestly believe that the past has a future!

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In conclusion, I thank all the friends across three continents who have assisted me in my work. Special mention may be made of the following benefactors:

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India: Late Prof. H.D. Sankalia, Prof. S.K. Mukherjee, Prof. B.N.

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Mukherjee, (Drs.) A.K. Bag, K.T.M. Hegde, S.R. Rao, Amita Ray, D.P. Agrawal, O.P. Agrawal, B.V. Subbarayappa, S.N. Sen, S.R. Sarma, Irfan Habib, I.G. Khan, C.V. Sundaram, H.C. Bhardwaj, B. Prakash, Vibha Tripathi, D. Joshi, Pradip, R.K. Ray, A. Ghosh, N.R. Banerjee.

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England: Prof. R.F. Tylecote, Drs. Paul Craddock, (Ms.) Lynn Willies, A.D.H. Bivar, (Ms.) Susan La Niece, (Ms.) Susan Stronge.

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U.S.A.: Prof. C.S. Smith, Dr. Ms. Thelma L. Lowe.

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The Director of the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur and his entire staff have provided consistent patronage to our work. We have received commendable secretarial help from Messrs. M.R. Nathwani, Jiwan Lal, Salig Ram, R.B. Dube of the Department of Metallurgical Engineering. It is indeed commendable that I.I.T., Kanpur, which does not have any department of Archaeology and Sanskrit, has nevertheless allowed Nayan, an archaeologist and Sulekha (my wife) a Sanskritist, to work in the institute under the INSA project. I thank Nayan and Sulekha for their splendid assistance.

Acknowledgements

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We are deeply indebted to the Indian National Commission for History of Science for sponsoring our work on Minerals and Metals in Ancient India up to AD 1200, extending financial assistance for the period 1987-91, and allowing us to publish the report in two volumes.

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We heartily thank the Commission and the staff of the History of Science Division of the Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi for their splendid and manifold assistance.

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The Director of the Indian Council of Historical Research, New Delhi, has been kind enough to permit the publication of this volume. We are grateful to the Council for the financial assistance for the publication of this report.

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We are also grateful to the staff of the Indian Council of Historical Research, New Delhi, for their help and assistance.

Contents

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Preface v Acknowledgements ix List of Tables xiii List of Figures xix List of Illustrations xxi Abbreviations xxvii

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1. Introduction 1
2. Minerals and Metals in the Pre-Harappan India 5
3. The Story of Material Splendour in Mohenjo-Daro 31
4. Minerals and Metals in Harappa 79
5. Bead and Seal Technology at Chanhu-Daro 93
6. Harappan Industrial Port at Lothal 107
7. Chalcolithic Ahar 127
8. Chalcolithic Cultures in the Peninsular India (2000-900 BC) 135
9. Chalcolithic Culture in the Eastern India 163
10. Copper in Ancient India 177
11. Iron, PGW and Urbanisation at Atrañjikhera 193
12. Iron in Ancient India 209
13. Minerals and Metals in the Mahābhārata Epic Sites of Hastināpura and Ahicchatra 249 through Centuries 255

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Pre-Harappan to Pre-Roman Periods 281

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16. Indo-Roman Trade in Minerals and Metals 289

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17. Mining in Ancient India : Non-Ferrous Ores and Other Minerals 315

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18. Antiquity of Zinc and Brass in Ancient India 351

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19. Iron in the Ancient India of the Post-Christian Era 385

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20. Some Indian Archaeomaterials in Ancient Works of Art 409

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21. The Future of the Past 473

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Coloured Illustrations 483

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Bibliography 515

List of Tables

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2.1 Early dates of the Pre-Harappan Sites 2.2 Mehargarh Phases 3.1 Chemical Analysis of Copper and Bronze Found at Mohenjo-Daro (Marshall, J. : *Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilisation*, Vol. II) 3.2 Analysis of Löllingite Samples at Mohenjo-Daro (Marshall, J. : *Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilisation*, Vol. II) 3.3a Chemical Analysis of Ceramic Materials Found at Mohenjo-Daro (Marshall, J. : *Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilisation*, Vol. II) 3.3b Chemical Analysis of Mortars Found at Mohenjo-Daro (Marshall, J. : *Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilisation*, Vol. II) 4.1 Chemical Analyses of Copper and its Alloys Found at Harappa (Vats, M.S. : *Excavation at Harappa*, p. 378) 8.1 Chemical and Metallurgical Analysis of Some Copper Objects from Prakash (600 BC) (Thapar and Athavale 1964-65: 121-35) 10.1 Alloying Pattern in the Copper Artifacts of the Harappan, Chalcolithic and Copper-Hoard Cultures (Agrawal, D.P., Arsenical Coppers in the Indian Bronze Age, 1978, In *Madhu : Recent Researches in Indian Archaeology and Art History — Sri M.N. Deshpande Festschrift*) 11.1 Analysis of Iron Objects from Atrañjīkhera (Gaur, R.C. : *Excavations at Atranjikhera*, 1983) 11.2 Percentage Composition of Iron Slags from Atrañjīkhera (Gaur, R.C. : *Excavations at Atranjikhera*, 1983) 11.3 Chemical Analysis of Copper Objects from Atrañjīkhera (Gaur, R.C. : *Excavations at Atranjikhera*, 1983) 11.4 Percentage Composition of Slip Glaze and Core of NBPW From Different Sites (Hegde, K.T.M. : Scientific Basis of the Technology of the Three Ancient Indian Ceramic Industries, In *Archaeology & History — Essays in Memory of Sri A. Ghosh*, edited by B.M. Pande and B.D. Chattopadhyaya, Vol. 1)

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12.1 Melting and Smelting Temperatures of Some Metals of Archaeological Importance

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12.2 The Earliest Iron Age Sites in India

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12.3 Iron Samples in the Historical Period Pre-Christian Era India

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12.4 Distribution of Iron Tool Types in Different Zones of Ancient India (Prakash, B. : Iron Technology in Ancient India, In *Historical Metallurgy*, September 1986)

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12.5 Various Iron Tools and Implements appearing at the Three Stages of Iron Technology in Ancient India (Prakash, B. : Iron Technology in Ancient India, In *Historical Metallurgy*, September 1986)

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14.1 Chronology of the Principal Events Connected with the History of Taxila

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14.2 Stratigraphical Table of Beads from Sirkap, Taxila (Marshall, Sir John : *Taxila — Archaeological Excavation*, Three Volumes)

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14.3 Percentage Chemical Composition in Ancient Indian Glass from Taxila and Other Sites

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14.4 Soft Copper Objects in Taxila (Marshall, Sir John : *Taxila — Archaeological Excavation*, Three Volumes)

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14.5 Objects of Bronze Unalloyed with Lead at Taxila (Marshall, Sir John : *Taxila — Archaeological Excavation*, Three Volumes)

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14.6 Objects of Bronze Alloyed with Lead at Taxila (Marshall, Sir John: *Taxila — Archaeological Excavation*, Three Volumes)

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14.7 Objects of Brass at Taxila (Marshall, Sir John : *Taxila — Archaeological Excavation*, Three Volumes)

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14.8 Objects of Copper-Nickel Alloy at Taxila (Marshall, Sir John : *Taxila — Archaeological Excavation*, Three Volumes)

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14.9 Solder Objects at Taxila (Marshall, Sir John : *Taxila — Archaeological Excavation*, Three Volumes)

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14.10 Table of Analysis, Brinell Hardness and Micro-Examination of Some Iron/Steel Objects Found at Taxila (Marshall, Sir John :

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Taxila — *Archaeological Excavation, Three Volumes*

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16.1 Dates Relevant to the Indo-Roman Trade

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17.1 Some C-14 Dates Related to Metallic Ore Mines in Ancient India

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17.2 Some Undated Ancient Copper Mines and Workings in India

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17.3 Per cent Composition of Some Ancient Objects Containing Silver (Bhardwaj, H.C. : *Aspects of Ancient Indian Technology*, Delhi)

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17.4 Elemental Percentages in Rampura-Agucha Slag (Tiwari, R.K. : *Ancient Mining Activity, In Man and Environment* Vol. VIII)

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17.5 Analysis of Crystalline and Glassy Lead Slages at Zawar Mine, Rajasthan (Freestone, I.C. : *Analytical Approaches to the Interpretation of Medieval Zinc Smelting Debris from Zawar, In Journal of Archaeological Chemistry*, December 3)

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17.6 Some Multi-Metallic Samples of the Kshatrapa Period (2nd-4th century AD) (Hegde K.T.M. : *Source of the Metal in the Lead Coins of the Kshatrapa Period*, September 20)

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17.7 Trace Element Impurity Patterns and Ksatrapa Coin-Ore Correlation (Hegde K.T.M. : *Source of the Metal in the Lead Coins of the Kshatrapa Period*, September 20)

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17.8 Typical Composition of *Reh, Sajji Matti* and Bittern (La Touche : *The Geology of the Lonar Lake with a Note on Lonar Soda Deposit, In Records of the Geological Survey of India*, Vol. 41)

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18.1 Zawar Zinc Retort Wall: Analysis of Ceramic Materials (Freestone, I.C. : *In Furnaces and Smelting Technology in Antiquity*, 1985)

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18.2 Analysis of the Spent Charge from Zawar Zinc-Smelting Retorts (Freestone, I.C. : *In Furnaces and Smelting Technology in Antiquity*, 1985)

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18.3 Silver, Lead and Zinc Contents of Zawar Retort Residue Materials (Freestone, I.C. : *In Furnaces and Smelting Technology in Antiquity*, 1985)

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18.4 Analysis of Residues from Different Parts of a Zawar Retort and of Ash Heap (Freestone, I.C. : *Analytical Approaches to the Interpretation of Medieval Zinc-Smelting Debris from Zawar, In Journal of Archaeological Chemistry*, Volume 3)

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18.5 Phases Identified in Zawar Retort Residue, Wall and Slag by X- Ray and Electron Diffraction Studies (Biswas, A.K. : Studies on Zinc Residues of Ancient Indian Origin, Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, Vol. 37)

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18.6 Analysis of Zawar Ore, Tail, Zinc Concentrate and Retort Residue, and Relative Proportions of Constituents

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19.1 Elemental Composition of Samples of Traditionally Made Indian Steels (Bronson, Bennet : A Crucible Steel of India, Vol.1)

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19.2 Chemical Analysis of the Delhi Iron Pillar (Element Percentages)

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19.3 Hardness Test Results of the Delhi Iron Pillar (Ghosh, M.K. : The Delhi Iron Pillar and its Iron, In National Metallurgical Laboratory Technical Journal, Vol. 5)

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19.4 Chemical Analysis of Koṇārka and Koraput Iron Samples (Ghosh, M.K. : The Delhi Iron Pillar and its Iron, In National Metallurgical Laboratory Technical Journal, Vol. 5)

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19.5 Micro-Structure and Hardness Values of Koṇārka Samples (Ghosh, M.K. : The Delhi Iron Pillar and its Iron, In National Metallurgical Laboratory Technical Journal, Vol. 5)

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20.1 A Sample of Chronological Collections of Art Objects from Ancient India

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20.2 Analyses of Some Mortars, Lime-Washes and Plasters Used in Ancient India (Gairola, T.R. : Ancient India, no. 6)

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20.3 Materials in Some Indian Mural Paintings (Agrawal, O.P. : A Study on the Techniques of Indian Wall Paintings, In Journal of Indian Museums, 25-26)

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20.4 Analysis of Metallic Items and Icons from Ancient and Medieval Gujarat (Swarnakamal : Studies in Metallic Art and Technology of Gujarat, India)

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20.5 Metallography of Some Gujarat Icons (Swarnakamal : Studies in Metallic Art and Technology of Gujarat, India)

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20.6 Some Authors on Ancient Indian Icons and Dates of their Publications

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20.7 Analysis of Some Gāndhāra and Kashmir Brasses

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20.8 Nālandā Metal Images—Analysis of Sound Metallic Cores unless stated otherwise (Lal, B.B. : An Examination of Some Metal

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20.9 Atomic Absorption Analyses of Some Tibetan/Himalayan Brass Items in the British Museum (Craddock, P.T. : The Copper Alloys of Tibet and their Background, In *Aspects of Tibetan Metallurgy*)

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20.10 Elemental Analyses of Some South Indian Bronze and Brass Statues in Munich Museum (Riederer, J. : Materialanalysen an Bronze und Messingstatuetten des Staatlichen Museum für Völkerkunde in München, In *Skulpturen aus Indien — Bedeutung und Form*)

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20.11 Composition of seventh-century AD Paunar Copper Coins in Percentages of Elements (Hegde, K.T.M. : Analytical Study of Paunar Coins, In *Journal of the Numismatic Society of India*, 37)

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20.9 Images from Malhar in Ancient India. 19

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20.10 Elemental analyses of some Indian bronze and brass statues from the British Museum (M. J. Hughes, The Laboratory Technique of the British Museum, 1981). 78

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20.11 Composition of some ancient Indian Copper Coins (Analyses of Bhaskar's Hoard, M. J. Hughes, Study of Ancient Coins, in the Journal of the Numismatic Society, 1978). 87

List of Figures

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2.1 Map of South Asia Showing Chalcolithic Sites (5000 — 3200 BC) 2.2 Map of South Asia Showing Early Bronze Age Sites (3200 — 2500 BC) 2.3 Map Showing Important Pre-Harappan Sites 9.1 Copper Hoard Sites 10.1 Ancient Copper-Making Furnace at Ambaji, Rajasthan 12.1 Map of the Iron Age Culture Sites in South Asia 12.2 Map of the Indian Subcontinent showing some of the Archaeological Sites where Iron Age Articles have been found 12.3 Radio-Carbon Dates of Some Iron Age Sites in India 12.4 Megalithic Iron Smelting Furnace — 700 BC Naikund 16.1 Indo-Roman Trade Routes and Ports in the Christian Era 16.2 Distribution of Semi-Precious Stones and Roman Coins During the Era of Indo-Roman Trade 17.1 Proto-Historic Copper Sites in Rajasthan — Second and Third Millennia BC 17.2 Jodhpura OCP and Ganeshwar Copper Culture Sites in Rajasthan 17.3a Lead-Zinc Ore Mining Areas in Rajasthan 17.3b Ancient Mine Workings at Rajpura-Dariba 17.4 The Diamond Fields of India 17.5 Archaeological and Early Historical Sites Showing Glass Objects 18.1 Ancient Mines at Zawar and the Details of Zawarmala Mine (Willies Lynn : Ancient Lead and Zinc Mining in Rajasthan, India, World Archaeology, Vol. 16, no. 2, October 1984) 18.2 Midpoint Vertical Section Through a Zinc Reduction — Distillation Furnace at Zawarmala (Craddock, P.T. : Early Zinc Production in India, Mining Magazine, January 1985)

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18.3 Horizontal Section through the Furnace (Craddock, P.T. : Early Zinc Production in India, Mining Magazine, January 1985)

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18.4 Section through Small Charged Zinc Reduction — Distillation Retort with Stick Still in Place (Craddock, P.T. : Early Zinc Production in India, Mining Magazine, January 1985)

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18.5 Plot of Partial Oxygen Pressure Versus Temperature — Likely Reactions in Zinc Retort (Freestone, I.C. : Furnaces and Smelting Technology in Antiquity, 1985)

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19.1 Typical Manufacturing Procedure for a Damascus Sword from Indian Wootz (Sherby, O.D. : Damascus Steels, In Scientific American, February 1985)

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20.1 The Sites for the Manufacture of Coins in Ancient India (Sahni, B.: The Technique of Casting Coins in Ancient India, Numismatic Society of India, no. 1)

List of Illustrations

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*Ill. 1.1* Four steatite seals from Mohenjo-Daro. One has tree divinity, devotee, sacrificial bull and seven sages (*saptarṣi*). The other is Paśupati in Yoga posture.

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*Ill. 1.2* Top shows jewels from Harappa. Necklace of gold, semiprecious stones and vitreous paste. Gold bracelet. Double-coil ornament. Setting of the red cone-shaped stone with the central hinge. Bottom shows series of pierced pieces for jewellery of jade, semi-precious stones, terracotta, thin enamel (with trefoil motif) and bronze. Mohenjo-Daro. National Museum, New Delhi.

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*Ill. 1.3* Less than 3 inches mutilated male torso from Harappa of red sandstone.

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*Ill. 1.4* Male bust of calcareous marble (or of steatite or limestone or alabaster?), Mohenjo-Daro. Phase studies necessary. King-priest, cloak covered with sacred trefoils. Elongated face and stylized beard, National Museum, Karachi.

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*Ill. 1.5, 1.6* Dancing Girl. Mohenjo-Daro. Height 10.8 cms. Thick-lipped, snub-nosed aboriginal from Southern Baluchistan with bangles, armlet and stringed necklace with three cowrie shell pendants. Bronze statuette cast by the cire perdue method National Museum, New Delhi.

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*Ill. 1.7* Lothal. Copper and bronze bangles, rings and spacer beads, Lothal Museum.

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*Ill. 1.8* Lothal. Necklace of micro-beads of gold.

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*Ill. 1.9* Lothal. Beads of semi-precious stones, agate, carnelian, steatite and faience.

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*Ill. 1.10* Brass Object part of a chariot in submerged Dwarka circa 1500 BC. Analyses Cu 73.71%, Zn 10.68, Pb 1.32, Fe 0.43. Dwarka, Lothal and Atrañjikhera show earliest brass in India. Courtesy Prof. S.R. Rao.

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[Figure: Ill. 1.11] Chariot. Daimābād. Bronze. Length 50 cm. Height 23.3 cm. The animals in the chariot look like bull-horses or unicorns. The chariot has two solid wheels moving along with the axle driven by a Proto-Australoid man (priest?). Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi.

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[Figure: Ill. 1.12] Rhinoceros. Daimābād Bronze. Length 24 cm. Height 28.5 cm. Breadth 14.6 cm. Standing on two horizontal bars over two sets of wheels. Mouth is longish resembling the snout of a boar.

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[Figure: Ill. 1.13] Typical copper objects from the Mature-Harappan levels of Kālībaṅgan. Courtesy : B.K. Thapar and the Archaeological Survey of India.

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[Figure: Ill. 1.14] Copper Hoard Implements. Chisels, Harpoons, Swords, etc. from Gaṅgā-Yamunā Doab, National Museum, New Delhi.

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[Figure: Ill. 1.15] The Lion Capital of Sārnāth. Polished Sandstone. Aśoka’s Reign. Ca 272-232 BC.

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[Figure: Ill. 1.16] Yakṣi and Yakṣa from Bharhut second century BC. Sandstone railing. Indian Museum, Calcutta.

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[Figure: Ill. 1.17] Gems from Taxila, 1945 hoard. 1-3: gold ornaments. 4: amethyst bead. 5: crystal bead.

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[Figure: Ill. 1.18] Silver bent-bar coins from the Bhir Mound, Taxila. 1945 hoard.

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[Figure: Ill. 1.19] Gold Beads from Taxila, Bhir Mound, 1945 hoard.

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[Figure: Ill. 1.20] Prince with a bow. (Front and Back). Nāgārjunakoṇḍā. Ikṣvāku Period. Third century AD. Height 8.5 cm. Suggestive of the Sātavāhana prince, a ‘friend’ of Nāgārjuna, the first commentator on distilled zinc and brass.

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[Figure: Ill. 1.21] Dharmacakra. Chausa. Kuṣāṇa period, second century AD, Height 32.5 cm., Diameter 8 cm. Dharmacakra or the Buddhist triune or triratna concept of religious doctrine, law and order. The wheel has sixteen spokes with a plain felly and supported by two crocodiles with Śalabhañjikās or female nature spirits in their jaws. Cast bronze. Patna Museum.

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*Ill. 1.22* Fourth and fifth century AD Gupta Era gold coins showing horse-sacrifice, the king hunting, reclining, under an umbrella, with battle axe, playing the lyre, riding an elephant and hunting a lion, riding a horse and hunting a rhinoceros. The last four depict goddesses : Lakṣmī with cornucopia, with a dancing peacock and Gaṅgā on the crocodile.

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*Ill. 1.23* Zawarmala Mine. Double arches made by fire-setting. The lower set is of later origin resulting from retreat working.

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*Ill. 1.24, 1.25* The Delhi Iron Pillar (early 5th century AD) installed by Candragupta Vikramāditya II, as per the Sanskrit inscription on the body. The corrosion-resistance of the forge-welded wrought iron structure is partly due to its composition (low C and Mn, high P).

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*Ill. 1.26* Copper Refining Furnace at Khetri (Ball, Economic Geology of India).

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*Ill. 1.27* Ewer, A Bidriware, inlaid with silver and brass, inscribed on the rim. The base metal is high-zinc-low-copper alloy. The black patina is due to KNO₃ — oxidation of copper-rich phase. The design is cut out of sheet silver with brass wire being used to indicate details. The inscription suggests that the ewer was made for Timur in 1406 or 1407. Height 28.5 cm, Width 18.4 cm.

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*Ill. 1.28* Huqqa base, a Bidriware inlaid with silver and brass. Second half of 17th century. Height 18.6 cm, Diam. 16.8 cm. Silver has been used for the flowers and brass for the leaves and stems.

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*Ill. 1.29* Vṛntāka-Mūṣā, brinjal-like Zinc (ore) reduction-distillation crucible from Zawar. Slag in broken Zinc distillation retorts.

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*Ill. 1.30* The upper part of Gupta Period Jivantasvāmī 40.5 cm x 11.2 cm Composition Cu 73.4%, Sn 5.5%, Zn 3.6%, Pb 9.8%, Fe 4.9%. Metallography shows lead at the grain boundary. The attractive image has triple-folded neck, the broad shoulders, the armlet and its beaded band, circular ornamental Gavākṣa motif, circular Tilaka mark on the forehead, broad necklace, inlaid eyes, the ringlets of hair on the shoulders, the four-sided tall crown marked by caitya window ornament in front, Baroda Museum.

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*Ill. 1.31* Yakṣī Ambikā. From Akoṭa. Maitraka, sixth century AD. 27 cm x 14.5 cm. Analysis : copper 76.7%, Sn 1.6%, Zn 16.3%, Pb 4.0%. Baroda Museum.

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*Ill. 1.32* Tritirtha image of Pārśvanātha. From Akoṭa, Maitraka, 7th century AD. Baroda Museum 22 cm x 11 cm. Analysis : copper 80.8%., Sn 5.3%, Zn 7.4%, Pb 2.2% and Fe 1.0%.

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*Ill. 1.33* Fly-whisk bearer (camaradharini). Fr om Akoṭa. Maitraka, seventh century AD. 21.5 cm. ht., 4.5 cm shoulder width. Analysis: copper 73.2%, Sn 2.2%, Zn 10.7%, Pb 11.3% and Fe 1.4%. Metallography reveals lead precipitation, annealing below the recrystallisation temperature and heavy cold working. Baroda Museum.

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*Ill. 1.34* Tritirthika of Pārśvanātha. Akoṭa. Early Solaṅkī period circa 950 AD Height 48 cm. An inscription on the back tells us that this brass image was installed by one Regata in c. 900 AD and his mother, Mālā whose images are placed on a lower level on the pedestal. National Museum, New Delhi.

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*Ill. 1.35* Buddha. Uttar Pradesh, Gilt, 6th century AD., Ht. 39.5 cm., Los Angeles County Museum of Art.

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*Ill. 1.36* Avalokiteśvara. Nālandā, Gilt, 9th century AD. Devapāla Period, Ht. 30 cm., Nalanda Museum.

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*Ill. 1.37* Tārā. Kurkihar. Devapāla period (825-830 AD) Height 32 cm. Tārā is the embodiment of Divine Grace and the feminine counterpart of the Bodhisattva. This is one of the masterpieces amongst the eastern Indian bronzes, well-known for its sheer grace and elegance. Patna Museum.

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*Ill. 1.38* Bodhisattva Loknātha. Kurkihar. Rāmapāla period (1072-1125 AD) Height 23.5 cm. Patna Museum. Lotus-bedecked bejewelled gilt image. A girdle with pearl festoons in the waist, a necklace bracelet, arm-bands with a lion-face ornament and a beaded sacred thread.

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*Ill. 1.39* Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara with Goddesses. Kashmir 980-1003 AD Height 25 cm, Bronze. Represents the flourishing period of Tāntric religion. Srinagar Museum.

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*Ill. 1.40* Mañjuśrī. Western Tibet. 12.5 cm on lion and base. While the body of the deity assays 65.5%. Cu, 30.4% Zn and only 0.25% As, the lion assays 76% Cu, 13.9% Zn and 6.80% As.

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The base 90.1% Cu, 0.4% Zn and 7.40% As; the surface contains even higher percentage of As (14.0%) on account of inverse seggregation and renders ‘silvery’ whiteness to the base supporting a ‘golden’ statue. (Courtesy: Mrs. Susan La Niece of the British Museum.)

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*Ill. 1.41* Yaśodā and Kṛṣṇa. Karnataka; Vijayanagar period; circa 14th century; copper, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

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*Ill. 1.42* Lakṣaṇā Devī. Brahmaur, situated in the Chamba area (south of Kashmir), valley of the Buddhal, a tributary of the Ravi. The brass image 101.5 cm height is under worship. Dated 700-750 AD. It reminds us of Mahiṣāsurmardinī, a concept which developed during the post-Greek Kuṣāṇa period. The ornaments indicate different traditions mingling into a martial spirit in the Western Himalayas.

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*Ill. 1.43* Maheśvara. Bengal 10th century AD. Height 59.5 cm. With akṣamālā, Kalaśa and trident, flanked by devotees and Gaṇeśa. The seated figure of the Buddha immediately above the head of Śiva indicates a link between the two traditions, Asutosh Museum, Calcutta.

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*Ill. 1.44* Manikkavachakar. Bronze Statuette. Cola 11th century AD. 9th century AD scribe-poet holding Tiru Murai (Book of Sacred Sayings), New Delhi, National Museum.

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*Ill. 1.45* The Śaiva Saint Karaikkal Ammaiyar. Thiruvalangadu, Chingleput District, Early Cola, Sembiyan Mahadevi School, circa 975 AD. Under worship in the Śiva Temple, Thiruvalangadu.

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*Ill. 1.46* Ardhanārīśvara, the hermaphrodite form of Śiva. From Tiruvenkadu, Cola, Eleventh century AD. Close-up of the profile. Beautiful metal sculpture with masculine and feminine halves of the body, Madras, Govt. Museum.

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*Ill. 1.47* Śiva, as Lord of Music. Bronze, height 24 inches. Cola Dynasty. Tamil Nadu. Last quarter of 10th century. The upper arms hold battle-axe, antelope, the two lower arms are held as if carrying a lute, an Indian musical instrument.

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*Ill. 1.48* Umā. Nallur, Tanjore District. Early Cola period Bronze circa 975 AD. Height 68 cm. Madhyārjuna Temple, Thiruvidaimarudur.

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*Ill. 1.49* Naṭarāja from Kankoduttavanitam (South India), Cola, Eleventh century AD. One of the important large bronzes in the collection, Madras, Govt. Museum.

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*Ill. 1.50* Naṭarāja. Early Cola period, circa 950 AD. Now in the Thirunallam Udaiyar Temple, Konerirajapuram, Tanjore District.

Abbreviations

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Ait. Brā. — *Aitareya Brāhmaṇa* AK — *Amarakośa* AM — *Agastimata* ARR — *Agastīya Ratnaparīkṣā* AS — *Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra* ASHR — *Aṣṭāṅgahṛdaya* Āsval. ŚS — *Āsvalāyana Śrautrasūtra* AV — *Atharva Veda* BARC — Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Bombay B&RW — Blue and Red Ware Bṛ. Saṃ. — *Bṛhat Saṃhitā* B. Up. — *Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad* Chā. Up. — *Chāndogya Upaniṣad* DKM — *Dhātukriyā* or *Dhātumañjarī* DRN — *Dhāturatnamālā* DV — *Dhātuvāda* GP — *Garuḍa Purāṇa* Jai. Brā. — *Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa* Jai. Brā. Up. — *Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa Upaniṣad* K. YV — *Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda* Kā. ŚS — *Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra*

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| *Kā. Saṃ.* | — | *Kāṭhaka Saṃhitā* |
| *Katha Up.* | — | *Katha Upaniṣad* |
| *Kau. Brā.* | — | *Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa* |
| *Kau. S.* | — | *Kausīka Sūtra* |
| *LRP* | — | *Laghu Ratna Parīkṣā* |
| *Mait. Saṃ.* | — | *Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā* |
| *Mait. Up.* | — | *Maitrāyaṇī Upaniṣad* |
| *Manu* | — | *Manu Smṛti* |
| *MCK* | — | E.J.H. Mackay’s *Further Excavations at Mohenjo-daro* (Vol.1) |
| *ML* | — | *Mānasollāsa* |
| *MM* | — | *Maṇimālā* |
| *MS-I* | — | J. Marshall’s *Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilizations* (Vol. I) |
| *MS-II* | — | J. Marshall’s *Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilizations* (Vol. II) |
| *MSV* | — | Madho Sarup Vats’ *Excavation at Harappa* (Vol. 1) |
| *NBPW* | — | Northern Black Polished Ware |
| *Nir.* | — | *Nirukta* |
| *NRP* | — | *Navaratnaparīkṣā* |
| *OCP* | — | Ochre Coloured Pottery |
| *Paṃ. Vi. Brā.* | — | *Pañca Viṃsa Brāhmaṇa* or *Tāṇḍya Brāhmaṇa* |
| *Pāṇ.* | — | *Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī* |
| *PGW* | — | Painted Grey Ware |
| *RASASA* | — | *Rasendra-Sāra-Saṃgraha* |
| *RCD* | — | *Rasendracuḍāmaṇi* |
| *RCM* | — | *Rasacintāmaṇi* |
| *RCT* | — | *Rasendra-Cintāmaṇi* |

v1.c8.3

*RHR* — *Rasaḥṛdaya* *RJL* — *Rasajalalakṣmī* *RKP* — *Rasakalpa* *RN* — *Rājanighaṇṭu* *RNM* — *Rasanakṣatramālikā* *RNVK* — *Rasārṇavakalpa* *RNV* — *Rasārṇava* *RP* — *Ratnaparīkṣā* *RPS* — *Rasaprakāśa Sudhākara* *RR* — *Rasa-Ratnākara* *RRS* — *Rasaratnasamuccaya* *RS* — *Ratnasaṃgraha* *RV* — *Ṛgveda* *RYP* — *Rayaṇaparikkhā* *RYT* — *Rudrayāmala Tantra* *Ś. Brā.* — *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa* *SP* — *Skanda Purāṇa* *SSRS* — *Sarveśvararasāyana* *ST* — *Suvarṇatantra or Svarṇatantra* *ŚYV* — *Śukla Yajurveda* *S. Vi. Brā.* — *Saḍa Viṃsa Brāhmaṇa* *Sāṅkh. Ā.* — *Sāṅkhyāyana Āraṇyaka* *Sāṅkh. ŚS* — *Sāṅkhyāyana Śrautasūtra* *Tait. Ā* — *Taittirīya Āraṇyaka* *Tait. Brā.* — *Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa* *Tait. Saṃ.* — *Taittirīya Saṃhitā (Same as K. YV)* *Vā. Saṃ.* — *Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā*

1. Introduction

v1.c9.1

THE present study deals with the production and use of minerals and metals in ancient India. The ‘ancient’ period provisionally ends in AD 1200, and ‘India’ covers the sub-continent including the present Pakistan and Bangladesh; occasionally references would be made to Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Tibet also.

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The monograph is divided into two volumes. Volume I is devoted to archaeomaterials, special emphasis being paid to the scientific aspects of mining, minerals, gems and production of metals, alloys and various artefacts. Volume II, deals with the literary evidences specially those available in the Sanskrit texts. In both the volumes a chronological approach has been undertaken.

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The Pre-Harappan chalcolithic sites of Mehrgarh, Mundigak, Ganeshwar, etc. are discussed in chapter 2. The evidences there clearly show that the copper-making tradition was indigenously developed in India. The Harappan civilization showed an astounding variety of raw materials and finished products with sharp distinctions in different sites such as Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Chanhu-Daro, Lothal, etc. (divided in chapters 3-6).

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Harappa, having a large number of furnaces, was probably a manufacturing centre whereas Mohenjo-Daro, a capital city, showed wider varieties of materials. Chanhu-Daro specialised in making beads, seals and standard weights. Lothal was both a Harappan port as well as a mammoth factory-site having an exclusive coppersmiths’ quarter. In chapter 7 we shall discuss the copper-smelting practises in the Post-Harappan site of Ahar in Rajasthan.

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Three successive chalcolithic cultures—Kayatha, Malwa and Jorwe—of the Peninsular India (2000-900 BC) are reviewed in chapter 8. These cultures bridged the gap between the Harappan and the PGW culture of the Historical Period. The Copper Hoards Culture in the Eastern India (chapter 9) was another phenomenon filling a part of the gap between the Harappan and the PGW eras. Both in the south and in the east, the chalcolithic cultures developed iron-smelting traditions indigenously.

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The entire copper-making tradition and culture in the sub-continent during the ancient period are reviewed and summarised in chapter 10. The complex issue of the artefact-ore correlation shall be discussed in detail.

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Atrañjikhera archaeology (chapter 11) covers the period of nearly fifteen centuries before Christ starting from the OCP culture, through B & RW and PGW eras, to the flourishing NBPW culture. In the earlier stage, the link with chalcolithic culture of Ahar is evident. The twelfth century PGW stratum of Atrañjikhera exhibits one of the earliest uses of iron in India. This site also exhibits the uses of copper alloys (including brass), agate, carnelian, sajji maṭṭi for the NBPW, etc.

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The diffusionist theory of the iron technology being brought into India from outside by the ‘invading Aryans’ are discussed in chapter 12 and rejected. There are enough evidences that by 1200 BC the Iron Age had started indigenously in at least three nuclear zones of the sub-continent — around Atrañjikhera in the north, Karnataka in the south and in the Bengal-Bihar area in the north-east. The various features of the early Indian practises such as solid-state reduction, carburization, lamination, forge-welding, quench-hardening, etc. and the various iron tool types used in different nuclear zones are presented in chapter 12.

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The Hastināpura archaeological evidence (chapter 13) shows that the material splendour described in the epic Mahābhārata could not correspond to 1200 BC Hastināpura. Further discussion in chapter 6 of Volume II shows that the epic was expanded in several stages, the material grandeur described in the epic corresponding to the later Historical Period.

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The archaeological findings from the pre-Maurya, Maurya, Greek, Parthian, Scythian and Kuṣāṇa layers at Taxila (chapter 14) corroborate many aspects of the written history of India. These display the glory of ‘second urbanisation’ in India after the Harappan era. Amongst the diverse alloys of copper found in Taxila, most noteworthy is the brass vase assaying 34.34 per cent zinc which proves the earliest use of zinc as a separate metal in the ancient world. Equally noteworthy are the uses in Taxila of high-carbon steel, stone objects, beads and ornaments of noble metals, gems (like beryl), glass etc.

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India’s trade in minerals and metals with the outside world up to the Maurya Period (chapter 15) is attested firstly by the circumstantial evidences such as

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seals and finished goods of particular design and then by the accounts of the Greek writers, some of whom had visited India. In the following chapter the Indo-Roman trade on minerals and metals during the early Christian era has been reviewed critically. A special feature of this chapter is clarification of the confusions surrounding the nomenclatures of minerals and gems in the ancient world; this particular topic is further discussed in the chapter 7 on *Ratnaśāstra* in Volume II.

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The knowledge of mining archaeology in India (chapter 17) remains in a rudimentary stage. In this chapter we have compiled some 34 principal C-14 dates for ancient Indian mines starting from 1260 BC Rajpura-Dariba in Rajasthan; however a very large number of ancient mines have remained undated. The antiquity of sub-surface mining for copper, lead, silver and zinc ores in north India, and of gold in the south has been well-established.

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In chapter 18 we highlight the recent discoveries pertaining to the primacy of ancient India in the field of zinc and brass metallurgy. India was the first to make and use distilled zinc some time during fourth century BC. Brass icons were made continuously across twenty-three centuries. Hegde, Craddock, Willies, etc. and our team at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur have done considerable work on zinc slag and the thirteenth century commercial process at Zawar Mines. There was a technology transfer of the zinc distillation practices from Zawar, India to Bristol, England some time during the early part of the eighteenth century.

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Chapter 19 deals with the later part of the Indian Iron Age during the Christian era. Wootz was the famous Indian product of carburised iron, produced in crucibles, and from which steel swords were made. Literary evidences suggest that Indian steel used to be made in the second century AD, if not earlier.

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The world-famous Delhi iron pillar is a marvel of ancient India showing the largest forge-welded object of the era. Both the dry weather of Delhi and the special composition have contributed to the remarkable rustlessness of the pillar. Many scientific details of the Delhi pillar, other iron pillars in India and the ancient Orissa beams are presented in this chapter. The pre-modern tribal iron metallurgy in India is probably a remnant of the earlier traditions of ancient metallurgy in the sub-continent.

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India produced a huge variety of art objects for which diverse raw materials were used (chapter 20). Many kinds of rocks and stones, limes and plasters, pigments for painting etc. were used since the pre-Christian era. The Buddhist relic caskets faithfully display the contemporary art objects made of steatite, rock crystal, beryl, gold, etc. Metallic icons—Buddhistic, Jaina and Brāhmaṇical — constitute a great treasure of ancient Indian Art. Surveying the traditions of Gujarat, Nālandā, Kashmir, Nepal, Tibet and South India in icon-making, we have presented some of the scientific data in this chapter. In India there were distinct trends of alloy-making using different proportions of copper, tin, zinc, lead, gold (different kinds of gilding procedure), etc. The uses of sophisticated instruments and techniques are adding new dimensions to the scientific knowledge of the ancient Indian art objects.

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The trend of scientific analysis unravelling the mysteries of the archaeo-materials of ancient India is bound to continue and escalate (chapter 21). However these analytical data must be handled and interpreted with caution by the historians and archaeologists in the light of their own findings and other evidences such as the literary (extensively discussed in the ten chapters of Volume II).

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The investigations on the past of our material culture have not only bright future but are also likely to be instructive towards the future planning of science in India.

2. Minerals and Metals in the Pre-Harappan India

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The story of minerals and metals in ancient India is tied up with the ever unfolding history of human civilization in the sub-continent. In the nineteenth century our knowledge of the Indian history extended only up to the first millennium BC Buddhist and epic eras. With the discovery of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, the information went back to the later part of the third millennium BC. Even this date was not too ancient compared to some of the archaeologically discovered dates in the Middle East. This prompted Sir Mortimer Wheeler (1953) to make his famous observation that the Indus (Harappan) civilization is a book whose first (before third millennium BC) and last (the second millennium BC) chapters are missing. Fortunately we would be able to report through this research that parts of the ‘missing chapters’ are being gradually recovered.

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Summing up the proceedings of the 1979 international conference of archaeologists in Kashmir, R.H. Dyson (1982) reported the ‘paradigm changes in the study of the Indus civilization’. Some of the earlier concepts (Piggott, 1950) such as sudden origin and sudden collapse of the Indus civilization, the latter ‘caused by the invasion of the Indo-Aryans in second millennium BC’, are being universally abandoned.

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The above remarkable ‘change in the paradigm’ has been caused by the discoveries of a large number of Pre-Harappan (vide Table 2.1), Mature-Harappan and Late-Harappan sites. The earliest site discovered so far is that of Mehargarh (also spelled as Mehrgarh) whose antiquity (vide Table 2.2) goes back to the seventh millennium BC. (Jarrige, 1979, 1980, 1982, 1984) A brief summary of the findings at Mehargarh may be presented below:

Mehargarh

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The site of Mehargarh is located in the northern region of Kachhi plains, at the foot of Bolan pass in Baluchistan, Pakistan. The French Archaeological Mission started excavations in 1974, and the diggings have brought to light a continuous sequence of occupation ranging from the seventh millennium BC to the middle of the third millennium BC (Table 2.2). So far this is the only site which has revealed such continuous sequence of cultures in Baluchistan.

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The cultural sequence of Mehargarh is as follows. There are altogether seven periods. The first period, i.e., Mehargarh I is aceramic neolithic settlement dated seventh millenium BC. Mehargarh II is ceramic neolithic dated sixth-fifth millenium BC. Mehargarh III is early chalcolithic settlement dated first half of the fourth millennium BC; Mehargarh IV is advanced chalcolithic settlement dated from the middle of fourth millennium BC. Mehargarh V is a transition period dated third quarter of the fourth millennium BC, Mehargarh VI is Early Bronze settlement (towns) dated from the end of fourth millennium BC and beginning of the third millennium BC, and Mehargarh VII is advanced bronze age settlement dated middle of the third millennium BC.

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Table 2.1

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Early Dates of the Pre-Harappan Sites (MASCA BC)

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| **Mehargarh and North-West** | **North of Mehargarh** |
| Mehargarh 11790 ± 120 | Rana Ghundai 4510 |
| 7786 ± 120 (bead of copper) | Rehman Dheri 3500 |
| | Gumla 2940 (Period II) |
| 4745 ± 90 (Copper metallurgy) | Sarai Khola 3rd millennium BC (Period II) |
| Kile Gul Mohammad 4980 | **South of Mehargarh** |
| Demb Sadaat 3630 | Nal 3rd millennium BC |
| Mundigak 3880 | Amri 3650 |
| Deh Morasi Ghundai 3880 | Balakot 3500 |
| Said Qala Tepe 2620 | Kot Diji 3380 |
| | |
| **Iranian** | **East of Indus** |
| Tepe Yahya 5250 | Budha Pushkar 9000 |
| 3670 (chalcolithic) | Koldihwa 6570 |
| Tal-i-Iblis 4900 (Cu bead) | Bagor 5000 (mesolith) |
| Shahr-i-Sokhta 2960 | 2800 (chalcolith) |
| | Ganeshwar- 3000 |
| | Jodhpura |
| | Kalibangan I 2900 |

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Table 2.2

Mehargarh Phases

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| Period | Dates (millennium BC) | Special Features |
| Ia-c | 7th-6th | Pre-ceramic neolithic culture; human figurines; 20,000 flint tools, grinding stones, barley, wheat, cereal cultivation, cakes of red ochre, beads of shell, turquoise, *lapis lazuli*, a cylindrical shaped copper bead. Sea-shell belt. |
| II | 6th-5th | Workshop for soapstone beads, flint drills, waste flakes, beads of shell, use of red ochre. Copper ring and bead. |
| III | 1st half 4th | Earliest used green cylindrical jasper drills and micro-drills for *lapis lazuli*, turquoise and carnelian beads. Stone implements. First evidence of metallurgy. Several crucibles used for melting copper-some metal still adhering. |
| IV | Middle 4th | Wheel-thrown pottery. Female figurines. |
| V | End 4th | Use of white pigment. |
| VI | Beginning 3rd | Mass production of pottery. Figurines on terracotta. Pottery kilns, Semi-industrial for a large market. Double spiral headed copper/bronze pin. *Pipal* leaves painted on red ware. More specialized female figurines. Terracotta bulls. |
| VII | Middle 3rd 2700-2500 BC | Grave with skeletons. Beads of kaolin, carnelian and *lapis lazuli*. Zhob mother goddess. Figure of a ram carved from alabaster, Kot Dijian pottery. Advanced Bronze Age. |

Lithic Objects

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From Period I comes the first evidence of lithic tools; stone tools including grinding stones and small flint blades and flakes are found. The artefacts recovered from Period I are most abundant — flint tools alone are 20,000 in number. Geometrically shaped flint bladelets such as trapezes and triangles represent 4 per cent of the total. In the Period III the number of lithic tools was increased. Stone implements including blades, bladelets, burins, notched blades, truncated blades, borers, sickles, ring-stones and grinding stones are of prominence. This is again found in the Period VI; almost the same lithic materials have been brought to light with a few microliths added with it. Thus the lithic industry survived at the site till the middle of third millennium BC. Flint implement included blades, bladelets, microliths, sickle elements, lunates, triangles, trapezes, burins, scrapers and drills. On the whole, the excavations at Mehargarh has unearthed 2052 stone objects. Of the total assemblage tools, cores and waste constitute 13.32 per cent (276), 2.77 per cent (57) and 83.36 per cent (1721) respectively.

Gem Minerals

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At Mehargarh, gem minerals are noticed from the very early Period. In the Period I, the gem minerals have been marked, although very little in quantity. In this level, among the grave goods, beads have been unearthed. These beads are made out of various local stones and imported turquoise. Sometimes a basket coated with bitumen was included and placed near the body filled with perishable goods. Apart from this, there were personal ornaments also, such as string of beads, several of them made of imported turquoise and lapis lazuli. In the Period II, although no such evidences of bead has been found, yet one interesting thing, viz., a workshop where beads were manufactured out of soapstone has been uncovered. The flint drills and wasted flakes conclusively prove the presence of local industrial workshops. Beads were indeed found in different manufacturing stages. Beads made out of shell were also recovered. An open space was found covered with layers of animal bones mixed with ashes. The space yielded more than 100 bone awls and several grooved stones used in shaping their points. The area clearly shows certain characteristics of an industrial establishment. A workshop for soapstone beads was established in Period II. Flint drills and waste flakes were noticed.

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In the Period III crafts show marked development; lapis lazuli, turquoise and carnelian were worked into beads with green cylindrical jasper drills. The jasper bits of this period are the earliest specimen known of a type that was used later during the third millennium BC at Shahr-i-Sokhta, Shahdad and at Chanhu-Daro. These are some very fine micro-drills indicating the use of low-drills working and engraving ornaments in shell.

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