翻譯名義集 2
English (machine translation) 2
- Language
- English
2.1
Compiled by Great Master Purun Fayun of Jingde Temple in Gusu
2.2
The Eight Classes, Chapter 14
The Four Māras, Chapter 15
The Realm of Ṛṣis, Chapter 16
Human Relations, Chapter 17
Elders, Chapter 18
Non-Buddhist Paths, Chapter 19
The Six Masters, Chapter 20
Ghosts and Spirits, Chapter 21
Animals, Chapter 22
Hells, Chapter 23
Divisions of Time, Chapter 24
2.3
The Eight Classes, Chapter 14
2.4
First, devas; second, nāgas; third, yakṣas; fourth, gandharvas; fifth, asuras; sixth, garuḍas; seventh, kiṃnaras; eighth, mahoragas. In origin, when the Buddha bestows transformation, his Way rescues the myriad spirits; when the Dharma is transmitted to the world, his compassion nurtures all beings. When going out, Śakra devānām indra leads the way before him; when entering, Brahmā-rāja follows behind. The Great Generals aiding on the left achieve merit by extinguishing evil; the Vajra-wielders assisting on the right manifest virtue by engendering good. Since the worthy and holy ones of the three vehicles have respectfully taken refuge, the ghosts and spirits of the eight classes stand in dense array to guard and protect. Now, in this compilation, it is fitting that they be recorded.
2.5
[Deva] In Chinese, this means "heaven" [or "god"]. The Fahua shu says: "'Heaven' (tian) means naturally endowed, superior by nature, superior in pleasure, and superior in body. Thus a treatise states: 'Pure and radiant, most superior and most revered, it is therefore called heaven.' If it were not by the most superior cause, how could one be born in the most superior place? As for the most superior cause, it refers to the ten good deeds: three of the body, four of speech, and three mental activities. Because these three karmas prevent errors and misdeeds and conform to reason and righteousness, they are called the ten good deeds. By means of these ten good deeds, one is transported out of the five destinies; therefore these ten precepts are called the celestial vehicle (devayāna). If one solely cultivates the superior grade of the ten good deeds, one will be born in the desire realm: first, the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings; second, the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven. If one cultivates the ten good deeds and sits in the not-yet-arrived concentration (anāgamya-samādhi), one will be born in the third, the Yāma Heaven; the fourth, the Tuṣita Heaven; the fifth, the Nirmāṇarati Heaven; and the sixth, the Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven. By the power of dhyāna-concentration, these four heavens all dwell in empty space and do not depend on the earth. As for the not-yet-arrived concentration, it is also called the not-yet-reached, because one has not yet entered the fundamental dhyāna. As the Zhiguan says: 'If one sits upright, gathers the body, harmonizes the breath, and becomes calmly settled, the body being like a cloud's shadow, open, spacious, and pure, yet one still perceives the characteristics of body and mind, this is called the desire-realm concentration. Going beyond this, one suddenly no longer sees the body, head, clothing, bed, or mat of the desire-realm concentration; it is like empty space, vast and tranquil. The body is a concrete obstacle; when the concrete obstacle has not yet passed, [concentration] has not arrived. When the obstacle is removed and the body is empty, the not-yet-arrived [concentration] can arise. Such is called the characteristic of the not-yet-arrived concentration. These are the causes and effects of the six heavens of the desire realm. If one cultivates the fundamental four dhyānas, detaching from desire and coarse distraction, one is born into the form realm.' However, according to the Sarvāstivādins, this form realm has only sixteen stations. The Jushe shu says: 'Excluding the Mahābrahmā Heaven—meaning that within the Brahmā-purohita Heaven there is a high tower named the Mahābrahmā Heaven, which is the dwelling of a single ruler and not a separate station; and excluding the Asaññasatta (Non-conceptual) Heaven—meaning that within the Bṛhatphala Heaven there is an elevated place called the Asaññasatta Heaven, not a separate station.' If according to the Sautrāntika, seventeen heavens are established; thus the verse commentary says: 'Although Mahābrahmā and the Brahmā-purohita do not differ in location, because their bodily form and lifespan are not equal, Mahābrahmā is established separately.' If according to the Sthaviravāda, because the cause and effect of the Asaññasatta and Bṛhatphala are distinct, eighteen heavens are established, divided into the four dhyānas. The three heavens of the first dhyāna: first, Brahmā-pāriṣadya, who are the subjects ruled over; second, Brahmā-purohita, the ministers and aides assisting the Brahmā king; third, Mahābrahmā, who attained the intermediate dhyāna and is the lord of the world. At the beginning of the kalpa he is born first, and at the end of the kalpa he perishes last; his majesty and virtue being superior, he is lauded with the title "Great". The three heavens of the second dhyāna: first, Parīttābha (Minor Light), because among the second dhyāna heavens its light is least; second, Apramāṇābha (Immeasurable Light), because its light increases and has no limit; third, Ābhāsvara (Radiant Sound), because their mouths utter no speech, and light serves as speech. In Sanskrit it is *ābha* Heaven, in Jin translated as 'having light and lifespan,' also called 'Minor Light.' In Sanskrit it is *apramāṇa*, here translated as 'Immeasurable Light.' In Sanskrit it is *ābhāsvara*, here translated as 'Radiant Sound.' The three heavens of the third dhyāna: first, Parīttaśubha (Minor Purity), where the mental feeling of pleasure, being separated from greed for joy, is partly pure; second, Apramāṇaśubha (Immeasurable Purity), where the purity surpasses the former and cannot be measured; third, Śubhakṛtsna, in Sanskrit *śubhakṛtsna*, where the feeling of pleasure is most superior and purity is universal. The nine heavens of the fourth dhyāna: first, Anabhraka (Cloudless); the three dhyānas below all abide dependent on clouds, but reaching this fourth dhyāna, they first dwell in empty space; second, Puṇyaprasava (Merit-born), where one can only be reborn by possessing superior power of merit; third, Bṛhatphala (Extensive Fruit), because among the fruits of ordinary beings, this is the most superior; in Sanskrit it is *bṛhatphala*; and these three heavens are dwellings of ordinary beings. Fourth, the Asaññasatta Heaven, where non-Buddhists dwell, considering it to be nirvāṇa; but it is merely that for a single period mental conceptualization does not function, hence it is called non-conceptual. Fifth, Avṛha (Effortless), because it is free of the mixture of afflictions of views and thoughts. Sixth, Atapa (No Heat), because mental pleasure is gentle and tame, free from the distress of heat. Seventh, Sudṛśa (Good-looking), in Sanskrit *sudṛśa* Heaven, where the hindrances to concentration are gradually minute and vision is extremely clear. Eighth, Sudarśana (Well-manifesting), where physical form is increasingly superior and can skillfully manifest. Ninth, Akaniṣṭha (Ultimate Form), where form is ultimate; it is the final station. The heavens from Avṛha onward are the abodes of anāgamins; these five heavens are called the five anāgamin [heavens]. If one detests the cage of form and cultivates the four formless concentrations, one is born into the four formless heavens, called the formless realm. First, the station of the infinity of space: the Chanmen says: 'At the outset of this concentration, one separates from three kinds of form, and the mind takes empty space as its object. Since it corresponds with the formless, it is called the concentration of empty space.' Second, the station of the infinity of consciousness: the Chanmen says: 'Renouncing space, one takes consciousness as object, using consciousness as the station. It receives its name precisely from the object taken.' Third, the station of nothingness: the Chanmen calls it the station of non-employment. When cultivating this concentration, one employs neither external nor internal objects. External objects are called space, and internal objects are called mind; renouncing these two objects when first cultivating, it is therefore called the station of non-employment. Fourth, the station of neither-perception-nor-non-perception: the Chanmen says: 'One explanation says: "Contemplating the previous station of consciousness is having perception; the station of non-employment is non-perception. Now one eliminates both of the above two perceptions." Another explanation says: "In terms of ordinary beings it is said to be not having perception; in terms of the Buddha-Dharma it is said to be not lacking perception." Discussed together, it is therefore called neither perception nor non-perception.' However, regarding these four formless [heavens], the teachings of the Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna differ vastly in explaining their formlessness. First, the Hīnayāna teaching, as the Kośa says: 'In the formless there is no body; it operates dependent on homogeneity (sabhāgatā) and life-faculty (jīvitendriya), causing the mind to continue (there are twenty-four non-concurrent conditioned formations: first, acquisition; second, life-faculty; third, homogeneity of beings. The commentary explains: that which attains accomplishment is called acquisition; the seed of the eighth consciousness that keeps form and mind uninterrupted is called the life-faculty; or the real seed is life, while provisional karma constitutes life; because they are of similar kind, it is called homogeneity of beings).' Also, the 'Chapter on the World' says: 'The formless realm has no spatial location whatsoever, because non-material phenomena have no direction or place. That is, wherever one attains that concentration, upon the end of life one is born right in that place.' Also, the Chengshi lun says: 'Form is unmanifested (avijñapti); it does not reach the formless.' Now I say: If it is said to have no spatial location whatsoever, how could the Avataṃsaka say: 'The bodhisattva's nose faculty smells the fragrance of the palaces of the formless realm'? If according to the Mahāsāṃghika, they say there is merely no coarse form, not that there is no subtle form. Thus the Āgama says that when Śāriputra entered nirvāṇa, the devas of the formless realm shed tears from the sky like fine spring rain. Therefore we know that formlessness does not mean the absence of subtle form. These are two distinct tenets within the Hīnayāna school. As for the Mahāyāna teaching, as the Śūraṅgama says: 'In these four formless heavens, body and mind are completely extinguished, the nature of concentration manifests before them, and there is no form that is the fruit of karma.' Master Gushan explains: 'That there is no form of karmic fruit reveals that there is form resulting from concentration (samādhi-phala-rūpa). The Jushe zuan says: "There is no form of karmic fruit, nor a body of maturation." As the Fuxing says: "It is said that once there was a monk who attained the formless concentration; rising from concentration, he felt around in the air. Someone asked what he was seeking. He replied: 'I am looking for my body.' A bystander told him: 'The body is on the bed.'" Having attained concentration here, he still did not see his body. This proves that the four formless [heavens] have no form of karmic fruit. As for saying that it reveals there is form resulting from concentration, the Xianyang lun says: "It is called form born of mastery in concentration, meaning by the power of superior concentration. One attains mastery over all forms, and precisely through concentration one transforms and gives rise to the five sense objects." The treatise says: "Transforming the body into tens of billions, they stand together on the tip of a hair, filling empty space and the earth realm." The Zhongyin jing says: "The devas of the formless realm prostrated to the Bhagavat." The Śūraṅgama also says that the formless bow their heads. The Renwang jing says: "The devas of the formless realm rain down diverse fragrant flowers, their fragrance like Mount Sumeru, their flowers like chariot wheels." Moreover, the Nirvāṇa [Sūtra] says: "If the heavens such as Neither-Perception have no form, how could there be going, coming, advancing, and halting? Such a meaning is the realm of the Buddhas, not something known by śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas." Because the śrāvaka sūtras spoke of the emptiness they realized, they thereupon asserted that the ultimate stations are entirely formless. The Mahāyāna's true explanation is that outside the realms one even receives form of the dharmatā; how could these four heavens be merely utterly empty! Therefore it rebuked the two vehicles, saying it is not within their knowledge. The Jingming shu says: "If it is the provisional teaching, it clarifies that the formless realm has no form; if it is the definitive teaching, it clarifies that the formless realm has form." Moreover, the Da zhidu lun says: "When the devas are about to end their lives, five signs of death appear: first, the floral crown wilts; second, sweat issues from the armpits; third, flies come and cling to the body; fourth, one sees another deva sitting in one's own birthplace; fifth, one no longer takes pleasure in one's original seat. When the devas see these signs of death, they cherish celestial pleasures and see that they will be born in an evil destination, and their minds are immediately afflicted with sorrow." Furthermore, the Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya explains five deteriorations, distinguishing minor and major. The five minor deteriorations are: first, the clothing and ornaments produce an unpleasant sound; second, the radiance of one's own body suddenly becomes dim and weak; third, when bathing, water droplets cling to the body; fourth, one's nature was originally active, but now it is sluggish in a single state; fifth, the eyes were originally steady and calm, but now they blink frequently. When these five signs appear, death is not certain; encountering superior good conditions, they can still be averted. There are further five major signs of deterioration that appear: first, clothing is soiled with dust; second, flower garlands wither; third, sweat issues from both armpits; fourth, foul odor enters the body; fifth, one takes no pleasure in one's original seat. When these five signs appear, death is certain. Furthermore, the Da zhidu lun explains devas generally by distinguishing four kinds: first, nominal devas; second, birth devas; third, pure devas; fourth, purely born devas. First, nominal devas are like kings today who are called Sons of Heaven; second, birth devas are from the Four Heavenly Kings up to the Heaven of Neither-Perception-Nor-Non-Perception; third, pure devas are the various noble ones born among humans; fourth, purely born devas are the various noble ones born among the devas of the three realms. Furthermore, the Nirvāṇa [Sūtra] also explains four devas: first, worldly devas, such as kings; second, birth devas, from the Four Heavenly Kings to Neither-Perception; third, pure devas, meaning the four fruits and pratyekabuddhas; fourth, devas of truth, meaning bodhisattvas of the ten abodes, because they see that all phenomena are the truth of emptiness.' Thus, regarding these devas, their names are broad and their meanings abundant, and they ought to be distinguished!"
2.6
[Dhṛtarāṣṭra] The Da zhidu lun says: 'In the language of Qin, this means "ruling the country"; he presides over the gandharvas and piśācas.' The Guangming shu says: 'The chief of the ascending ones, the first heaven of the lower realm, dwelling on the golden terrace in the east halfway up Mount Sumeru, the king is named Dhṛtarāṣṭra. This translates as "holding the country", or as "pacifying the people".'
2.7
[Virūḍhaka] The Da zhidu lun says: 'In the language of Qin, this means "increasing and growing"; he presides over the kumbhāṇḍas and pretas.' The Guangming shu says: 'On the southern lapis lazuli terrace, the king is named Virūḍhaka. It is also translated as "escaping".'
2.8
[Virūpākṣa] The Da zhidu lun says: 'In the language of Qin, this means "diverse speech"; he presides over the nāgas and pūtanas.' The Guangming shu says: 'On the western silver terrace, the king is named Virūpākṣa. It is also translated as "not good retribution", also as "evil eye", and also as "broad eye" (broad vision).'
2.9
【Vaiśravaṇa (bù-mí)】 The *Dàzhìdù lùn* says: "In the language of Qin, it means 'Much Hearing' (Duowen); he rules over yakṣas and rākṣasas." The *Guāngmíng shū* says: "On the northern crystal terrace, the king's name is Vaiśravaṇa." The *Suǒyǐn* says: "Because his reputation for blessed virtue is heard in all four directions, it is also translated as 'Universally Heard' (Puwen). The Buddha commanded him to hold and support the relic stūpas of ancient Buddhas." The *Sēngshǐ lüè* says: "In the first year of the Tianbao era of the Tang, five Western barbarian states came to raid Anxi. On the eleventh day of the second month, a memorial requested troops for relief; but dispatching an army over ten thousand li would take months to arrive. Close ministers memorialized that Tripiṭaka Master Amoghavajra be summoned into the inner palace to recite incantations. Emperor Xuanzong held the incense burner while Amoghavajra chanted the dhāraṇī of the *Renwang Huguo Jing*. After only fourteen recitations, the Emperor suddenly saw five hundred divine beings, armored and carrying spears, before the hall. The Emperor asked Amoghavajra, who replied: 'This is Dujian, the second son of Heavenly King Vaiśravaṇa, responding to Your Majesty's wish by going to rescue Anxi.' In the fourth month of that year, a memorial arrived: 'On the eleventh day of the second month, at the si hour, thirty li northeast of the rear city, amid dark clouds and dense fog, divine beings about ten feet tall appeared, all clad in golden armor. At the you hour, drums and horns sounded loudly, and the earth and mountains shook. After two days, the barbarian invaders fled in collapse. Soon after, a form of the Radiant Heavenly King manifested on the city watchtower; we respectfully submit a sketch along with this memorial.' Consequently, an imperial edict ordered all circuits, prefectures, and commanderies to erect statues of the Heavenly King in their northwestern corners." These Four Heavenly Kings dwell on the flanks of Mount Sumeru. Thus the *Abhidharmakośa* verse says: "The layers of the Wondrously High are four, each separated by ten thousand [yojanas]; / extending outward by sixteen thousand, eight, four, and two thousand in measure. / The Solid-Handed, the Garland-Bearers, and the Ever-Intoxicated, along with the hosts of the Great Kings, / reside in succession on the four terraces, and also dwell upon the other seven mountains." These are called the four kings and eight classes; or, as some list twenty-eight classes, one explanation says: each direction has four classes, so the six directions make twenty-four classes, and with one in each of the four intermediate corners, they total twenty-eight classes. Another says: each direction has five classes—namely, earth, water, fire, wind, and space—so the four directions make twenty classes, and together with the eight classes led by the Four Kings, they make twenty-eight classes. The *Gǎntōng zhuàn* relates that the celestial being Lady Fei said: "Under each king are eight generals, making thirty-two generals for the Four Kings, who travel throughout the four continents, coming and going to protect and assist the renunciants. Among the four continents, the northern continent has little Buddhadharma, while in the other three continents the Buddhadharma greatly flourishes. Yet renunciants mostly violate the prohibitive precepts, and few act in accordance with the Dharma. In the eastern and western continents, people have little cleverness or wisdom, and their afflictions are hard to transform. In the southern continent, although they commit many offenses, when transformed to follow the good, their minds are easily subdued. When the Buddha was approaching nirvāṇa, he personally gave them the entrustment and commanded them all to guard and protect, not allowing Māra to disturb them: 'If you do not guard and protect such precept-breakers, who will practice my teachings!' Therefore, before the Buddha's bequeathed admonition, they dare not fail to act. Though they see transgressions of the prohibitions, they pity and protect them. If they see one practicing a single good, ten thousand faults are not reproached; their approach is to overlook blemishes and disregard past mistakes. General Wei, among the thirty-two generals, is the most devoted to extensive protection. Many demonic sons and daughters make light of and ridicule bhikṣus, and those whose power in the path is weak are all led astray. The general rushes anxiously to the rescue, eradicating [the demons] as the occasion demands. Thus, whenever matters arise, he must go to the place of the Four Kings. When the kings see him, they all rise, because General Wei cultivates the practice of pure youth and protects the true Dharma."
2.10
【Trāyastriṃśa】 Dharma Master Ying says: "The Sanskrit sound is corrupted and abbreviated; correctly it should be Trāyastriṃśa. Here it means thirty-three." A verse in the *Abhidharmakośa* says: "At the summit of the Wondrously High, eighty thousand [yojanas across], dwell the Thirty-Three Gods. / At the four corners are four peaks, where the Vajrapāṇis reside. / The central palace is named Good Sight (Sudarśana), ten thousand yojanas around. / Its golden walls are half as high, and within is the Hall of Surpassing Excellence, / one thousand yojanas around."
2.11
【Śakra Devānām Indra】 The *Dàzhìdù lùn* says: "Śakra in Qin means 'capable' (neng); deva in Qin means 'god' (tian); indra in Qin means 'lord' (zhu). Combined, it is said as Śakra Devānām [Indra], or Śakra-devendra." Today he is briefly called Di-shi (Emperor Śakra), which combines both the Chinese and Sanskrit words. The *Saṃyuktāgama* says: "A bhikṣu asked the Buddha: 'Why is he named Śakra Devānām Indra?' The Buddha answered: 'Originally, when he was a human, he practiced instant generosity and was capable of acting as a lord; hence he is named Śakra Devānām Indra.'" The *Yīngluò jīng* says: "You, the present Heavenly Lord Śakra, have attained a multitude of meritorious practices. When the thousand Buddhas, [your] brothers, have passed, the name of the Auspicious Kalpa will exist no more. In the interval, entirely desolate and empty for twenty-four medium kalpas, thereafter a Buddha will appear, whose land will be named Universal Endurance (Puren). That Buddha's lifespan will be seven kalpas, and his bequeathed Dharma will also last seven kalpas. When his Dharma has become extinct, a desolate void will elapse for five kalpas. In that land, you will succeed to the position of Tathāgata, titled the Venerable One Free of Attachment (Asaṅga)." The *Jìngmíng shū* says: "As for the Emperor Śakra of this realm, formerly when Kāśyapa Buddha entered extinction, there was a woman who resolved her mind to repair a stūpa, and thirty-two other people resolved their minds to assist in the repair. By the merit of repairing the stūpa, she became the lord of the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, and those who assisted in the repair became her assistant ministers. Ruler and ministers combined are named the Thirty-Three Gods."
2.12
【Suyāma】 Here translated as 'Good Time' (Shanshidian), and also translated as 'Wondrously Good' (Miaoshan). Newly rendered as Suyāma. Here translated as 'Time Division' (Shidian), because they constantly proclaim their happiness. Alternatively, it is said that in experiencing the realms of the five desires, they know the divisions of time.
2.13
【Tuṣita】 Here translated as 'Wondrous Contentment' (Miaozu). Newly rendered as Tuṣita, meaning 'Knowing Contentment' (Zhizu). The *Xīyù jì* says: "Tuṣita, formerly called Doushuotuo or Doushutuo, is corrupt. It is because they know how to be content regarding the five desires." The *Buddhabhūmi-śāstra* calls it 'Joyous Contentment' (Xizu), meaning that bodhisattvas in their final rebirth teach and transform within it, mostly cultivating joyous contentment.
2.14
【Sunirmita】 Or Nirmāṇarati. The *Dàzhìdù lùn* says: "In the language of Qin, it means 'Delighting in One's Own Transformations' (Hua zile); they transform the five sense-objects themselves and entertain themselves with them, hence it is called 'Delighting in One's Own Transformations'." In the *Śūraṅgama*, it is named 'The Heaven of Delighting in Transformations'.
2.15
【Vaśavartin】 Or Paranirmita-[vaśavartin]. The *Dàzhìdù lùn* says: "In the language of Qin, it means 'Sovereignty over Others' Transformations' (Tahua zizai). This heaven seizes what others have transformed and entertains itself with it, hence it is called 'Sovereignty over Others' Transformations'." It is also called 'The Heaven of Transforming in Response to Sounds'. The *Biéxíng shū* says: "This is the highest heaven of the desire realm, which relies on what others make to achieve its own pleasure. This is the Demon King (Māra)."
2.16
【Mahābrahman】 The *Jīngyīnyì* says: "Brahma-kāyika, here rendered as 'Pure Body' (Jingshen). It is the Brahma heaven of the first dhyāna." The *Jìngmíng shū* says: "Brahma is a Western sound; here it means 'separation from desire' (liyu), or 'pure practice' (jingxing)." The *Fǎhuá shū* says: "Because they eliminate the bonds of the lower realms and ascend to the form realm, it is called 'separation from desire', and also called 'lofty purity'." The *Jìngmíng shū* says: "The Brahma King is the lord of the Sahā world, residing in the intermediate stage of the first dhyāna. This is the intermediate dhyāna, situated between the two pillars of the first and second dhyānas." The *Abhidharma* says: "From the second dhyāna upward, because there is no Dharma of speech, no royal governance is established." The *Yīngluò* states that every dhyāna has a Brahma King; but now it is said that they merely add the cultivation of the immeasurable minds, and by surpassing retribution become kings, without having governance. The first dhyāna has investigation and reflection (vitarka and vicāra) and speech, and therefore has a presiding ruler, thus acting as the lord of the world. The *Cìdì chánmén* says: "The Buddha spoke of eighteen Brahma [heavens] in the *Renwang Jing*, which must also have distinctions of ruler and subjects." It also says: "In the fourth dhyāna there is the Great Silent King; yet the Buddha in the Tripiṭaka only speaks of a Great Brahma King in the first dhyāna, because within the first dhyāna there are minds of investigation and reflection, and thus the Dharma of speech, making it convenient to govern the sentient beings of the lower realms." Zhengzhen says: "When the kalpa first formed, the Brahma King was born first, dwelling alone for a kalpa without any Brahma companions. Later he generated the thought: 'May sentient beings come and be born in this place.' Having formed this thought, the Brahma sons were immediately born. Non-Buddhists, failing to comprehend this, clung to the view that the Brahma King is permanent and the Brahma sons are impermanent."
2.17
【Śikhin】 The *Dàzhìdù lùn* says: "In the language of Qin, it means 'Fire', or is translated as 'Fire Crest' (Huoshou)." The *Fǎhuá shū* says: "Foreign countries call fire *jyotiḥ-śikhin*. This king originally cultivated the fire samādhi to break through the delusions of the desire realm, establishing his name after his virtue." It also says: "The sūtra notes the Brahma King and then mentions Śikhin, seemingly as if they were two persons. According to the *Dàzhìdù lùn*, it is precisely Śikhin who is the king; here, presenting his title to make his name evident, it probably refers to one person." Sengzhao says: "Śikhin is the name of a Brahma King, in the language of Qin meaning 'topknot' (dingji)."
2.18
【Brahmapurohita】 Here translated as 'Heaven of Prior Benefit' (Qianyi tian). Walking before Brahman, they constantly contemplate the benefit of the Brahma Heaven. Also named Brahmapurohita (Brahma's Assistants).
2.19
【Śuddhāvāsa】 The *Dàzhìdù lùn* says: "In the language of Qin, it means 'Pure Abode Heavens' (Jingju tian), encompassing the five pure abodes."
2.20
【Akaniṣṭha (zhú-jià)】 Its correct name is Akaniṣṭha, or it is called Akanisa. Here it is translated as 'Ultimate of Form' (Zhi'ai jiujing), which is the Akaniṣṭha Heaven (Heaven of the Ultimate of Form).
2.21
【Maheśvara】 The *Dàzhìdù lùn* says: "Here translated as 'Great Sovereign' (Da zizai); the correct name is Mahā-Maheśvara. He has eight arms, three eyes, and rides a white ox." The *Pǔmén shū* says: "The *Lóutàn jīng* calls it Akaniṣṭha; the *Huáyán jīng* calls it the Ultimate of Form. Some people consider it to be the sixth heaven [of the desire realm], but various sūtras and treatises mostly state that the Great Sovereign is the summit of the form realm. The *Dàzhìdù lùn* says: 'Beyond the Pure Abode Heavens, there are bodhisattvas of the ten abodes, titled Great Sovereign, masters of the great chiliocosm.' The *Shízhù jīng* says: 'The light of Maheśvara surpasses all sentient beings.' In the offerings presented at the nirvāṇa, Maheśvara was supreme; therefore it is not the sixth heaven." Guanding says: "He is styled Emperor Weiling."
2.22
【Mārīcī】 Here translated as 'Mirage' (Yangyan); she moves in front of the sun.
2.23
【Saṃjñeya】 Here translated as 'Secret' (Mi), meaning that his name, practice, principle, and wisdom are all four secret. Tiantai, in explaining the great heavenly generals, states that the *Suvarṇaprabhāsa* regards Saṃjñeya as the great general. The *Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra* says: 'Eight-armed Gandha, the mighty warrior among devas.' The *Dàzhìdù lùn* also mentions Kumārarāja, here translated as 'Youth' (Tongzi), who rides a peacock, holds a rooster, carries a bell, and grasps a red banner. There is also Viṣṇu, here translated as 'Universally Heard' (Pianwen), who has four arms and holds a conch, a wheel, and a garuḍa. These are all great generals among the devas; it is not yet known which one this great general definitely is. The *Guāngmíng shū* says: 'The twenty-eight classes patrol the world, rewarding good and punishing evil, all governed by Saṃjñeya.'"
2.24
[Vajrapāṇi] In Liang, it was translated as 'adamantine' (jingang). Dharma Master Huanying says: 'Vajra translates here as adamantine. Pāṇi translates here as hand. It is named from holding a vajra pestle in hand.' The *Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna Sūtra* states: 'Anciently there was a king whose queen bore a thousand sons. Wishing to test the order in which they would attain Buddhahood in the future, Krakucchanda drew the first lot, Śākyamuni drew the fourth lot, down to Rocana who drew the thousandth lot. The second queen bore two sons. One vowed to be Brahmā King, requesting his thousand elder brothers to turn the wheel of the Dharma. The next vowed to be the Guhyapada Vajra spirit (Dharma Master Huanying says: "The Sanskrit word is śānta, translated as Lord of Secrets, because he knows the merits of the Buddha's three mysteries. The Sanskrit original has no meaning of 'footprint' or 'trace'; taking the manifestation of traces to be a spirit was established interpretively by translators, hence it is called Guhyapada [Secret Traces]"), to protect the teachings and Dharma of his thousand elder brothers.' Popular tradition holds that he is an incarnation of Rocana, but this is incorrect; he is Prince Fayis. According to the sūtras he is only one person, yet today he is depicted at the gates of saṅghārāmas as two statues. Since responsive transformations are boundless, even many would be without fault; this appears in the *Suoyin ji*.
2.25
[Hārītī] The *Suvarṇaprabhāsa Sūtra* calls her 'Hāritīnam', which marks the Sanskrit name. 'Mother of Ghost Children' and so forth shows the Liang translation. Although there are two names, the person is only one. Therefore, when explaining the Mother of Ghost Children in the Vinaya, the concluding summary states: 'At that time the people of Rājagṛha all addressed her as the spirit Mother Hārītī.' The *Records of the Western Ocean Sent Back by One Who Searched for the Law* says: 'When Western donors invite monks for a noon offering, they first set out an offering for the holy saṅgha, and next distribute the food to the assembly of monks. Afterward, at the end of the row, they set a plate to offer to Mother Hārītī.'
2.26
[Viśvakarman] The *Nyāyānusāra* gives the pronunciation as Viśvakarman, translated here as 'manifold crafts'. Craftsmen and artisans in the Western Regions mostly make sacrifices to this deity.
2.27
[Veṣṭana] In the language of Liang, this is called 'circumference' or 'enclosure'; it is also called the deity Viṣṇu.
2.28
[Jīva Deva] Changshui says: 'Jīva translates here as life. It is the custom of Western countries to worship the deity of longevity, but where this explanation comes from is unknown. According to the *Lotus Sūtra Commentary*: "Jīvaka translates as 'originally alive'. He was born in the Trāyastriṃśa heaven. Maudgalyāyana had a disciple who fell ill, so he used his supernormal powers to go and inquire. He happened to meet the gods going out to play in the gardens; Jīvaka was riding in a chariot and did not descend, but merely joined his palms. Maudgalyāyana stopped him. Jīvaka said: 'The pleasures of the gods are so urgent that there is no leisure to look around. What does the Venerable One seek?' Maudgalyāyana explained his purpose in coming. Jīvaka replied: 'Fasting is essential.' Maudgalyāyana let him go, and only then was the chariot able to depart." Based on this, Jīva Deva is none other than the physician Jīvaka.'
2.29
[Sūrya] Also written as Sūriya or Sūri. Translated here as the Sun Deity. As for the sun, the *Shuowen jiezi* says it means 'fullness', the essence of great yang. The *Lokasthiti Sūtra* states: 'The palace of the Sun Deity is precisely fifty-one yojanas in length and breadth, and the same in height.'
2.30
[Soma (both syllables in the rising tone)] Translated here as the Moon Deity. The *Shiming* says: 'The moon (yue) means waning (que). It means it waxes and then wanes.' The *Huainanzi* says: 'The moon is the essence of great yin.' The *Lokasthiti Sūtra* states: 'The palace of the Moon Deity is precisely forty-nine yojanas in length and breadth.' Question: 'Why does the lunar disc wane at its beginning and end?' Answer: 'As the *Nirvāṇa Sūtra* states: "The nature of the moon is eternally full, with truly no increase or decrease. It is because of Mount Sumeru that there is waxing and waning." Also the *Abhidharmakośa* says: "Being close to the sun, it is covered by its own shadow; hence one sees the lunar disc wane." The *Lokaprajñapti-śāstra* states: "Because the moon palace travels close, it is encroached upon by the light of the sun disc; illuminating its other edge casts a shadow, covering the lunar disc itself, and so at that time it is seen not to be full."' However, regarding the single sun and moon shining universally on the four continents, the *Dīrghāgama* states: 'When it is noon in Jambudvīpa, the sun sets in Pūrvavideha, the sun rises in Aparagodānīya, and it is midnight in Uttarakuru.' The sūtra text explains each in sequence for the four directions. These two names appear in the *Mahāmāyūrī-vidyārājñī Sūtra*.
2.31
[Nāga] Translated here as dragon. The *Biexing shu* says: 'There are four kinds of dragons: first, those that guard heavenly palaces, holding them up so they do not fall—images of dragons are made on human roofs to represent this; second, those that raise clouds and bring rain, benefiting humankind; third, earth dragons, which dredge rivers and open canals; fourth, hidden treasures, which guard the treasures of wheel-turning kings and persons of great merit. Dragons have four modes of birth. The *Abhidharmakośa* states: "Egg-born garuḍas can eat dragons of all four births." The *Mayi jing* states: "There are four causes and conditions for falling into the realm of dragons: first, giving much; second, anger; third, treating people with contempt; fourth, arrogance." The *Avataṃsaka Sūtra* states: "When a dragon king brings down rain, it does not come from his body, nor does it come from his mind; there is no accumulation of it, yet it is not unseen. Merely through the power of the dragon king's mental intention, torrential rain pours down, covering all beneath heaven. Such a realm is inconceivable."'
2.32
[Nanda and Upananda] The *Wenju* states: 'Nanda translates here as Joy. Up[ananda] translates here as Good. The two brothers always protected the kingdom of Magadha, providing rain in its proper season so that the kingdom knew no famine years. King Bimbisāra held an assembly once a year, and the common people rejoiced on hearing it, from which they got their names.' Ci'en says: 'The first is named Joy, the next is named Worthy Joy. These two brothers responded well to people's minds: winds did not whistle through the branches, and rains did not break the clods. At first they brought people joy, and later their nature was also virtuous, causing joy and being virtuous, hence they were named after this.' The *Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra* says: 'There were dragon king brothers, one named Giri and the second named Agrahara, who brought rain in its proper season.'
2.33
[Sāgara] Named after the ocean, as explained below.
2.34
[Vāsuki] Translated here as Many-Headed.
2.35
[Takṣaka] Translated here as Showing Poison, and also as Many-Tongued.
2.36
[Anavatapta] Translated here as Without Heat. Named after the lake; in the lake there is a hall with five pillars.
2.37
[Manasvin] Translated here as Great Body, or Great Mind, or Great Strength.
2.38
[Utpala] Also called Utpal, also called Upada. Translated here as dark-coloured lotus, and also blue lotus. Dragons dwell depending on this, and it is named after the lake.
2.39
[Elāpattra] The *Chanyi chao* states: 'Also called Elāpattra. Elā is the name of a tree, translated here as foul odor. Pattra translates here as extreme. It means that in the past this dragon damaged the leaves of this extremely foul-smelling tree, which caused this foul tree to grow upon its head; hence it was named accordingly.'
2.40
[Kālika] Also named Kālaka. Translated here as Black Dragon.
2.41
[Yakṣa] Translated here as valiant and strong, and also as fierce and evil. Formerly called Yuecha. The *Records of the Western Regions* states: 'Yākṣa, formerly corrupted as yakṣa, is able to fly through the air.' Kumārajīva said: 'In the language of Qin it means noble person, and also light and agile. There are three kinds: first, on the earth; second, in the empty sky; third, heavenly yakṣas. Earth yakṣas gave only material wealth in charity, so they cannot fly in the air. Heavenly yakṣas gave chariots and horses in charity, so they are able to fly.' Sengzhao said: 'Heavenly yakṣas dwell in the lower two heavens, guarding the heavenly cities, moats, gates, and towers.'
2.42
[Vajradhara yakṣa] That is, the vajra-bearing spirit.
2.43
[Rākṣasa] Translated here as swift ghost, also as terrifying, and also as fierce and evil; or rākṣasa. Translated here as protector. If female, it is called rākṣasī.
2.44
[Bhadrapālaśāstā (?)] The *Xiasheng jing* states: 'In the language of Qin, it means good teacher; this is the yakṣa who protects Maitreya's city.'
2.45
[Gandharva] Or Gandhara. The *Jingming shu* states: 'Translated here as fragrance-skandha; this is also a sky-soaring spirit. They do not eat wine and meat, but rely solely on fragrance to nourish their aggregates; they are the music spirits of the banner-inverting music of the Lord of Heaven, dwelling in the vajra caves south of Sumeru.' Kumārajīva said: 'They are heavenly music spirits. They dwell in the earth's mountains of ten jewels. When the gods wish to make music, extraordinary signs appear on this spirit's body, after which it ascends to heaven.' The new [translation] says: "those who walk seeking fragrance". Dharma Master Huanying says: "scent-smellers".'
2.46
[Drūma (?)] The *Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra* says: 'In the language of Qin, it means tree; it is the name of a gandharva.'
2.47
[Asura] Formerly translated as "not upright"—the males being ugly and the females upright and handsome. Newly translated as "non-god" (asura). The Commentary on the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa states: "The retribution of these spirits is the most superior, ranked next to the gods, yet they are not gods." The new Vibhāṣā-śāstra states: "The correct pronunciation in the Sanskrit text is sura. Sura means 'god'; because they are not gods, they are called asuras. Furthermore, sura means 'upright and handsome'; because they are not upright, they are called asuras." The Datang Xiyu Ji states: "Asura—formerly called axiuluo, axulun, or axuluo—are all corruptions." "Kumārajīva said: 'In the language of Qin, it means "not drinking liquor"; the causes and conditions for not drinking liquor are found in the Samyuktaratnapiṭaka.'" The Commentary on the Lotus Sūtra states: "The asuras gather flowers from the four continents and brew them in the great ocean. Due to the karmic power of dragons and fish, the flavor does not ferment. Becoming enraged and jealous, they vowed to give it up, and so it is said they have no liquor." The Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa states: "Since the Buddha's passing was long ago, after the sūtras and teachings had been transmitted for five hundred years, many discrepancies arose. Some spoke of five destinies, and some spoke of six destinies. Examining the meaning of the various sūtras, there should be six destinies. Because wholesome karma has superior, middling, and inferior grades, there are three wholesome destinies. Because evil karma has superior, middling, and inferior grades, there are three evil destinies. Were it not so, evil would have three retributions while good would have only two retributions, which would be contradictory; if there are six destinies, there is no contradiction in meaning. Therefore, when these asuras were in their causal stage, they harbored suspicion and jealousy; although they practiced the five constants, because they wished to surpass others, they performed the inferior grade of the ten wholesome deeds, thus inducing the body of this destiny." The Avataṃsaka states: "For example, the Asura King Rāhu's original body is seven hundred yojanas tall, and his transformed body is one hundred and sixty-eight thousand yojanas tall. Emerging with half his body out of the great ocean, he stands exactly level with Mount Sumeru." The Śūraṅgama Sūtra states: "Furthermore, there are four kinds of asura classes: If among the ghost destiny, by the power of protecting the Dharma, they ride their supernormal powers into empty space, these asuras are born from eggs and are subsumed under the ghost destiny. If among the gods, their virtue declines and they are degraded and fall, taking up a dwelling adjacent to the sun and moon, these asuras emerge from the womb and are subsumed under the human destiny. There are asuras who sustain worlds, whose power is profound and fearless, and who can contend for authority with King Brahmā, Śakra Devānāmindra, and the Four Heavenly Kings; these asuras exist through transformation and are subsumed under the divine destiny. Then there is an inferior class of asuras born in the heart of the great ocean, submerged at the mouths of underwater caverns, roaming the empty sky in the morning and returning to lodge in the water in the evening; these asuras exist through moisture and are subsumed under the animal destiny." Jingjue asked: "Since these four kinds of asuras are subsumed under the four destinies, should they not lack a common realm of distinctive retribution?" The answer: "Although they belong to the four destinies, they are not without distinctive retribution. Now, saying that they 'take up a dwelling adjacent to the sun and moon,' and so forth, refers precisely to their common realms." Furthermore, the Dīrghāgama states: "In the southern continent there is the Vajra Mountain, within which is the palace of the asuras; the realm governed is six thousand yojanas, with railings, rows of trees, and the like. Yet throughout a day and night, they suffer torment at the three times, as instruments of torment come and enter their palace." The Lokasthiti Sūtra states: "The palaces, cities, and utensils where the asuras dwell are one grade lower than those of the earth-dwelling gods. They also have codes and rites for marriage, male and female, roughly like the human realm." The Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna Sūtra states: "Asuras are roughly of two kinds: the first are subsumed under the ghost destiny, being hungry ghosts with demonic bodies that possess supernormal powers; the second are subsumed under the animal destiny, dwelling at the bottom of the great ocean, beside Mount Sumeru." Question: "Are the four kinds of asuras listed in the Lotus Sūtra the same as or different from the four in the Śūraṅgama?" Answer: "Zizhong says they are the same. Jingjue says: 'Those four can only be subsumed within these four; they cannot be assigned sequentially to these categories.' Master Jingxi says: 'The four kinds in the Lotus Sūtra all wage war against Śakra. Broadly considered, they correspond only to the third category in the present sūtra.'"
2.48
[Bali] The correct name is Balika, translated here as "round and complete." Now mistakenly translated as "bound." It is also said to mean "bound in five places," or "unable to escape with five evil objects tied around the neck," having been bound by Śakra. The Jingyin Yi states: "Dwelling as the vanguard of the asuras, he was bound by Śakra; because he escaped through a vow, he was named after this."
2.49
[Kharaskandha] The Textual Commentary states: "Translated here as 'Broad Shoulders'; also called 'Evil Skandha,' he who stirs up the ocean waters."
2.50
[Vimacitra] The Textual Commentary states: "Translated here as 'Pure Mind,' also called 'Various Doubts'; he is the father of Śacī."
2.51
[Rāhu] The Textual Commentary states: "Translated here as 'Obstructing and Holding.' His transformed body is eighty-four thousand yojanas tall; raising his hand and palm, he obstructs the sun and moon, which the world calls a solar or lunar eclipse." The Shiming states: "The waning of the sun and moon is called an eclipse (shi); slightly and gradually encroaching and waning, like an insect eating (shi) the leaves of plants and trees." Jing Fang's Commentary on the Changes states: "When the sun and moon turn red and yellow, it is called a faint veil (bo). Or it is said: when they are eclipsed without intersecting, it is called a faint veil." Wei Zhao said: "When qi goes and veils them, it is bo; when they are encroached and damaged, it is shi." The Tattvasiddhi-śāstra states: "Like the sun and moon in the heavens, whose nature is originally bright and pure; when covered by the five obscurations—smoke, clouds, dust, fog, and the like—they do not appear." 'And the like' refers to the asura. Therefore the Buddha admonished: 'Asura! Asura! Do not swallow the moon; the moon can dispel darkness and relieve the manifold heat.'"
2.52
[Garuḍa] The Textual Commentary states: "Translated here as 'Golden Wings.' Its wings and plumage are golden, and the distance between its two wings is 3,360,000 li. On its neck it has a wish-fulfilling jewel, and it feeds on dragons." Sengzhao said: "The golden-winged bird spirit."
2.53
[Kiṃnara] The Textual Commentary states: "Also called zhenduoluo, translated here as 'spirit of doubt.'" Kumārajīva said: "In the language of Qin, it means 'human-yet-non-human'; they resemble humans but have horns on their heads. When humans see them, they say: 'A human? Or a non-human?' Hence they are named after this. They are also heavenly musician spirits, slightly inferior to the gandharvas." Newly called "spirits of song"; they are the deities of string and wind music among the gods.
2.54
[Mahoraga] Also called mohuluojia; translated here as "crawling on a great belly." Kumārajīva said: "They are earth dragons that crawl on their bellies." Sengzhao said: "Great python spirits that crawl on their bellies." The Commentary on the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa states: "They are the worldly temple deities. Receiving people's liquor and meat, it all enters the python's belly. Breaking the precepts with deviant flattery, having much wrath and little giving, they covet and indulge in liquor and meat. Being lax in precepts, they fall among ghosts and spirits; having much wrath, insects enter their bodies and feed on them. Also called mohuluo. As for the various sūtras calling them 'human-yet-non-humans,' Tiantai states that this is merely concluding the count of the eight classes."
2.55
Chapter 15: The Four Māras
2.56
The Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa states: "There are four kinds of māras: the defilement-māra, the five-aggregates-māra, the death-māra, and the devaputra-māra. The defilement-māra refers to the discriminations such as the one hundred and eight defilements, expanding to the eighty-four thousand defilements. The five-aggregates-māra refers to the body obtained through the combining causes and conditions of defilements and karma: the four great elements and the forms derived from the four great elements, such as the eye faculty, are called the form aggregate; the combining of feelings such as the one hundred and eight defilements is called the feeling aggregate; the combining of discriminations into small, great, immeasurable, and non-existent perceptions is called the perception aggregate; the mental formations, both associated and unassociated, such as greed and hatred, which arise on account of thoughts of good and bad, are called the formations aggregate; the arising of the six consciousnesses through the combining of the six sense faculties and the six sense objects, and the discriminations of these six consciousnesses combining into immeasurable and boundless minds, is called the consciousness aggregate. The death-māra: due to the causes and conditions of impermanence, it shatters the lifespan of the continuous five aggregates, entirely separating the three dharmas; because consciousness severs life, it is called the death-māra. The devaputra-māra: the lord of the desire realm, who is deeply attached to worldly pleasures, generates deviant views because of grasping at attainment, and despises and envies all noble ones and the Dharma-path of nirvāṇa; this is called the devaputra-māra." The Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra states: "Because the aggregate-māra follows and accompanies universally; because the heavenly māra causes obstructions; and because the death-māra and the defilement-māra serve as vessels of suffering for sentient beings in saṃsāra. Now it is said that the defilement-māra is the cause of saṃsāra; the five-skandhas-māra and death-māra are the fruit of saṃsāra; and the heavenly māra is the condition of saṃsāra." Furthermore, the Mayi Jing lists five māras: first, the heavenly māra; second, the transgression māra; third, the activity māra; fourth, the vexation māra; fifth, the death māra. The Fuxing states: "Suffering, emptiness, impermanence, and non-self are the four māras beyond the realms. Defilement, five skandhas, death, and devaputra are the four māras within the realms." The Commentary on the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa states: "Subduing māras means shattering the discourse of craving; crushing outsiders means shattering the discourse of views. Yet craving and views are of two kinds: within the realms, they are the followers of Pāpīyas and the six teachers; beyond the realms, they are the two vehicles and the shared bodhisattvas." The Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā states: "Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva mahāsattva accomplishes two dharmas, māras cannot destroy him. What are the two? Contemplating all dharmas as empty, and not abandoning all sentient beings. Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva accomplishes these two dharmas, māras cannot destroy him." The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, in the "Chapter on the Four Reliances," where the four reliances drive away māras, states: "If Māra Pāpīyas should come again, you should bind him with the five bindings." The Commentary by Zhang'an states: "There are two kinds of bindings: first, binding with five corpses; second, binding in five places. Binding with five corpses, like the contemplation of impurity, cures the māra of craving. Binding in five places through accord with principle cures the māra of views. The five corpses symbolize five kinds of impure contemplation; the five bindings symbolize five contemplation gates."
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- 翻譯名義集 — 法雲, Classical Chinese