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A History of Agriculture in India v1: Volume 1

A History of Agriculture in India v1

Language
English

Contents

Volume 1

Front matter

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A HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA

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VOLUME I BEGINNING TO 12TH CENTURY

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M. S. RANDHAWA D.Sc., I.C.S. (Retd) Fellow, Indian National Science Academy

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ICAR

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INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

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FIRST PRINTED DECEMBER 1980

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All Rights Reserved © 1980, Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi

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KABO 15280

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Printed in India at the National Printing Works, 10 Darya Ganj, New Delhi 110 002, and published by P. J. Joseph, Under-Secretary, Indian Council of Agricultural Research,

Foreword

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THE history of agriculture is inextricably interwoven with the progress of civilization because it was the taking up of agriculture that made it possible for primitive man to live in selected spots, forming a society, and growing a significant portion of his food nearby. In developing crop and animal husbandry, man learned to supplement his own physical capability with that of domesticated animals. This enabled human beings to find a certain amount of leisure to create the initial ingredients of what is known as civilization. A thorough investigation of the history of agriculture is therefore a most important though difficult task to execute. While in some other parts of the world this has been attempted, no such endeavour has previously been made in respect of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent, the home of one of the greatest ancient civilizations. It is therefore gratifying that this has at last been done by Dr M. S. Randhawa with the support of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. There could have been no better choice for the assignment.

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Scientist, educationist, litterateur, art connoisseur, historian, administrator and farmer, Dr Randhawa is a towering figure in many fields of human endeavour but he does not flaunt his remarkable talents. The distinguished American economist, Professor John Kenneth Galbraith, who came to know Dr Randhawa personally during his stay in India as the Ambassador of the United States, says: "He is, indeed, an extraordinary man. His mind has ranged over nearly the whole sphere of knowledge of science and art, from soil conservation to botany, to city management, history, religion, architecture and art. And in none of these has he been content to be an amateur. In every one he has manifested both the instinct and the diligence of the professional. I continue to be puzzled that one mild man could know accurately so much and to such good purpose."

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After taking a first class M. Sc. (Hons) degree in Botany, M. S. Randhawa joined the Indian Civil Service, but continued his botanical research on Algae, ultimately earning a Doctorate of Science from the Panjab University. The love of plants which drew him to the study of botany was perhaps the foundation on which were built up his later interests and achievements in the field of floriculture, horticulture and eventually agriculture and all aspects of farming. The scientific training stood him in good stead when dealing with a range of problems whether these were in administration or in handling materials for his outstanding studies on Indian art.

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About the latter, Krishna Chaitanya, the well-known art critic, has remarked, "To the presentation of research material on art he has brought over from a scientific background a precision of analysis and a cogency of argument that contrast sharply with the sprawling and incoherent narration that used to pass as art history in the old days. In scale and quality of illustration and in standards of production, his books have reached the highest international standards.” The noted British art critic and historian, W. G. Archer, stated that Dr Randhawa “is proving a cultural missionary of the first order”.

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As a pragmatic administrator, Dr Randhawa has rendered great service to the country. Entrusted with the work of rehabilitating refugees in Punjab in 1949 by the State Government, he realized that for these thousands of unfortunate human beings, timeliness in settling them was of the utmost urgency, and he completed this difficult task in record time. As Commissioner of the Ambala Division from 1951 to 1953 and then Development Commissioner of Punjab in 1955, his great work in the rural areas brought him a tremendous amount of popularity and renown. When accompanying Dr Randhawa and Professor Galbraith on a tour of the Kangra Valley when they were making a joint study of the centres where some of the priceless Kangra Valley paintings were done, I had occasion to see for myself the very high esteem and affection in which he was held by the people living in the rural areas. As soon as word reached them that the now legendary Dr Randhawa was going to pass through their area, they flocked in their hundreds to the little towns that we passed on the way, and swarmed around Dr Randhawa, whom they almost smothered with garlands of flowers.

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In 1945 Dr Randhawa was appointed Secretary to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research and 10 years later he became the Vice-President of the Council with the status of Additional Secretary to the Government of India. He was also Special Secretary in the Ministry of Food and Agriculture of the Government of India from 1964 to 1966, being in charge of the work of intensive agriculture throughout the country. He also held the position of Adviser (Natural Resources) in the Planning Commission. His duties, especially when he was Vice-President of the ICAR, took him to many parts of India, and he seized the opportunity to study with great interest the agriculture and farming systems of each region, the information collected being used for an important series of books on Farmers of India. His tours were always all-encompassing, including in their sweep visits to botanical gardens, horticultural institutions, art galleries, libraries and museums of natural resources of all kinds.

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During his tenure of the Vice-Presidentship of the ICAR, many important events in the field of agricultural research and education took place. After Independence the Government of India was naturally anxious to improve agricultural research and education as the backbone for building up a welfare State. Dr Randhawa was the Chairman of the Second Indo-American Team, which was set up to study the organization for agricultural

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research and training in India and the USA, and to make recommendations in this regard for the advancement of Indian agriculture. It was at this time also that a rapid development of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute took place, including the setting up of its now well-known post-graduate school in 1958.

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On retiring from Government service, Dr Randhawa became the Vice-Chancellor of the Punjab Agricultural University. His service to the University climaxes his life-long service to his state and the country. He developed the Punjab Agricultural University to a position in which it could provide a firm basis for the modernization of agriculture in the state, leading to a breakthrough in agricultural production. He also has stimulated to a considerable extent the arts and crafts of Punjab, the revival of its folk songs and Punjabi literature. He played a major role in the landscaping of the city of Chandigarh and in providing it with the largest and most beautiful rose garden in Asia. But he also served the whole country in many ways and his prominent part in promoting the Green Revolution cannot be forgotten.

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I have taken a little more space than usual to write about the author because I felt it was important to indicate his special experience and background for writing a history of agriculture. I have referred only very briefly, in passing, to his remarkable achievements in the field of art, culture and literature because what is most relevant in connection with the present project, of which the history is the outcome, is his scientific training and deep interest in botany and the evolution of life, his experience in agricultural development since 1934, and his involvement with agricultural research and education since 1949. His work with the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, his administration of a premier agricultural university from 1968 to 1976, and his personal experience of farming in the last few years have given him unique qualifications for the undertaking and completion of this formidable task.

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Dr Randhawa’s book is staggering in the wide sweep of its subject-matter and impressive in the depth of the detailed study which illuminates the pages. This is no ordinary history of agriculture. He himself has said that a history of agriculture “can only be properly understood in the light of the evolution of life and the material culture of man.” The book is therefore really a history of the origin and development of man in which agriculture, in its widest sense, has played a role which is inseparable from human life. The author goes back in geologic time to trace the birth of the Indian subcontinent. After giving an account of the soils, climate, vegetation and agricultural regions of India, he goes back to the Tertiary period and deals with the ancestors of man, tracing these from the great Apes, through the earliest known Hominids to the arrival of *Homo sapiens*. After dealing with the period of the hunters and the food-gatherers, the author refers to the discovery of agriculture and the domestication of animals. From then onward is presented a history of agriculture and man's civilization which go hand in hand. The author looks far and wide for his sources of information; apart from books and treatises, archaeological evidence and evidences from rock paintings, carvings, inscriptions, etc., are all used to build up the history of agriculture. Throughout the book, though reference is made to the world position, the emphasis is on the Indian subcontinent and India in particular.

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The later volumes would refer to the development of agriculture during the more recent period, finally presenting the picture of modern sophisticated agriculture based on the many advances which science and technology have made possible. The book will be of interest to a wide variety of persons including all those interested in agriculture, in history, in the early forms of art, the origins of civilization and in the evolution of life. It will, of course, be of special interest to those who wish to understand Indian agriculture. The book, containing an astonishing amount of detailed information, will be a valuable work of reference to scholars and students as well as to the common man who wishes to know more about the beginnings of life and culture in the Indian subcontinent. Dr Randhawa is to be congratulated on having completed a monumental task.

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New Delhi B. P. PAL

Preface

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Agriculture is the source of perpetual creation on which civilization depends. It has a dominant role in the Indian economy. It contributes nearly half of the national income and provides employment to about seventy per cent of the working population in India. It provides raw materials for most of our industry. It also accounts for sizable share of the country's foreign-exchange earnings. Apart from these material considerations, it is a way of life, unique and irreplaceable in human values. It is surprising that in spite of such importance there is no book dealing with the history of agriculture in India.

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In most European countries and the U. S. A. agricultural history has been documented by scholars, and there are societies and journals devoted to this subject. In India, however, this subject has not received the recognition it deserved. My association with agricultural development since 1934, with agricultural research since 1945, and with the administration of a premier agricultural university from 1968 to 1976, has given me the necessary background to prepare a work of this nature. When I wrote to Dr M. S. Swaminathan, former Director-General of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, and a scientist and scholar of eminence who has played a key role in promoting Green Revolution in India, he accepted the need for writing a book on India's agricultural history. The Governing Body of the ICAR at its meeting held on 2 September 1976 sanctioned the scheme, which, for the purposes of funding and administration, was located at the Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana.

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On 14 January 1977 the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation of the Government of India appointed me Chairman of a Committee to examine all agricultural universities in India, so that their working is improved. This assignment enabled me to meet agricultural scientists and farmers all over India and enabled me to fill gaps in my knowledge. On a visit to Bhopal, I saw the newly discovered cave paintings at Bhimbetaka and also met Dr V. S. Wakanker. On the way to Jabalpur, I saw the rock shelters and cave paintings at Adamgarh. I also noticed that whereas in Punjab and Haryana modern agriculture with the use of inputs such as tractors, threshers, electric motors and fertilizers is being commonly practised, in some parts of Madhya Pradesh the old wooden Persian wheel still persists, and threshing of wheat is done by treading the harvested crop under the feet of teams of bullocks tied with a rope to a wooden post, as in the Buddhist period. How the past persists in many parts of India! At Deccan College, Pune, I met Dr H. D. Sankalia, eminent archaeologist of India, who showed me his finds from Navdatoli and Nevasa. After seeing the new campus of the Agricultural University at Rahuri, I crossed the Pravara River on my way to Aurangabad. It was on the banks of this river that the chalcolithic farmers and hunters of Maharashtra lived. At Bombay I saw the collection of Harappan finds from Mohenjo-daro which the Museum had recently acquired. Apart from pots it also has the terracotta toy representing a plough. On a visit to Hyderabad to see the Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, I saw the collection of Mughal miniatures in the Salar Jung Museum and discovered some interesting paintings of wild sheep and markhor.

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Agriculture can be properly understood only in the light of the evolution of life and the material culture of man. Man is part of an unbroken stream of life. That stream in the dawn of life on earth manifested itself in the form of single microscopic cells. Hundreds of millions of years later, after transformation through forms of polyps, of worm-like creatures, of lancelets, it flowed through thousands of generations in the form of fish. It emerged on land as the amphibian. The amphibian evolved into the reptile. It covered itself with hair, acquired warm blood and fed its young with milk, and it transformed itself to become fully mammalian. Four-footed, tailed and hairy, it took to the Eocene forests. It grew into lemur, into monkey, into ape; and finally hominid. The hominid grew to the dignity of man.

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Man learned to control and use fire. He fabricated stone tools for hunting wild animals and skinning them. He domesticated the dog, who became his help-mate in hunting, as well as sheep, goat, pigs and cattle. He learnt to cultivate crops. He invented the wooden plough and learnt the art of ploughing and irrigation. He domesticated the horse, and with its aid acquired command over vast areas. He discovered the secret of smelting iron ore, invented the iron axe and plough-share, and with their aid cut the jungles and conquered hard soil.

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Apart from discussing the evolution of man in the light of the most recent findings of research, I have dealt with the evolution of his material culture in this book. This is necessary so that the evolution of man and his culture is firmly linked with the evolution of his animal ancestors. Moreover, the findings of modern archaeology, assisted by the 14carbon-dating method and by palynology, about man's material progress, such as the domestication of plants, are as spectacular as those of geology. Besides, I felt it necessary to provide history with the perspective of geological time so that historians realize how brief is the span of human history. When one considers the vicissitudes through which living beings have passed in the long geological history of the earth, the troubles which the present generation is facing seem insignificant. The findings of geology provide a new background to human history and impel us to discard the old ideas of the golden age in the past, for it has been proved beyond doubt that the material environment of man has progressively improved through the ages, and the comforts which are now enjoyed by the common man were not available even to the kings in the past.

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It is felt that this approach will provide the necessary corrective so that history is not overladen with inconsequential details about kings and their wars. No doubt some of the kings like Chandragupta Maurya, Asoka, Chandragupta I and Harsha were outstanding leaders who gave a new lead in the march of culture. Barring these exceptions many of the rulers were insignificant men, who strutted about on the stage of history, and in due course were lost in oblivion. Their only contributions were internecine feuds and wars and they were constantly nibbling at each other's territory. It is the misdeeds, crimes and conspiracies of such monarchs which figure prominently in traditional history books. What is important is an account of the life of the common people, their crops and cattle, and their food and dress. A culture is powered by the techniques of agriculture and industry. The man who discovered the technique of transplanting rice has done more good to humanity than all the kings put together.

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Since man started cultivation of crops and intercourse among people living far apart began through trade, diffusion of cultivars also occurred. Indigenous crops of India are few, viz. rice, urd, moong, kulthi, sarson, cotton and sugarcane. As far back as Harappan times wheat, peas and chana came from western Asia via Iran. Africa gave us jowar, bajra and sesamum. The best evidence of this statement is in the finds of foodgrains from archaeological sites and supported by cytogenetic and phytogeographic research. ¹⁴Carbon-dating and pollen analysis have further helped in elucidation of the facts concerning ancient plant economy.

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¹⁴ Carbon-dating and pollen analysis have further helped in elucidation of the facts concerning ancient plant economy.

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Agriculture should not be considered in isolation from the life of the people and the political scene. Emerging from a tribal society, the Hindu kings had to knit together far-flung areas. In the absence of roads and means of communication it was a difficult task. Only a large army, and a bureaucracy to support it, could accomplish this task. As such, large quantities of surplus food had to be produced to feed the army and officials. At that stage it could only be done by bringing larger area under the plough after cutting jungles. This was what happened in Mauryan India. The government had to be kind to the farmers in its own interest. This was no longer the case when India came under the rule of aliens later on.

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The history of ancient India has been slowly discovered due to the patient work of scholars, Europeans and Indians. In the first phase Sanskrit classics were translated into English. Sir Charles Wilkins translated the Bhagvadgita (A.D. 1785) and the fables of Hitopdesha (1787). Sir Willam Jones (A.D. 1964-94) translated the Code of Manu. Franz Bopp (A.D. 1790-1867), a German scholar, founded the science of Comparative Philology. In early forties of the nineteenth century, the French Orientalist, Eugene Burnouf, laid the foundations of Vedic scholarship in Europe. One of his pupils was F. Max Müller (A.D. 1823-1900), who produced the first edition of the Rig-Veda in six volumes. Burnouf and Lassen, with the publication of their *Essay on Pali* (1826), laid the foundation of the study of Pali. It was thus that the secrets of Sanskrit and Pali texts were unlocked for the English-reading people.

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Between 1834 and 1838 James Prinsep deciphered the inscriptions of Asoka. This laid the real foundations of the superstructure of Indian chronology that has since been erected.

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Sculptures and paintings also give us a glimpse of the life of the people in the past. The Buddhist sculptures at Bharhut, Sanchi, Mathura and Amaravati convey to us vividly how the Indians lived, what was their dress, what were their favourite trees and domestic animals. In them we can even identify breeds of cattle as well as flowering and fruit trees.

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The records of foreigners who came to India also inform us about the agriculture of ancient India. These authorities are the Greek Megasthenes (c. 300 B.C.), the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims Fa Hian (A.D. 399-415), and Hiuen-Tsang (A.D. 629-45), and the Central Asian Alberuni (A.D. 1031).

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Following the travel account of Hiuen-Tsang, Alexander Cunningham discovered during 1861-1902 a number of Buddhist monuments in northern and central India. From 1904 to 1939 Sir John Marshall, the first Director-General of Archaeology in India, excavated the sites at Taxila, Nalanda, Sanchi, Sarnath, and Bhita. He also paid attention to Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. He was followed by K. N. Dikshit, who excavated Harappa. During the period since Independence valuable work in digging up the past has been done by A. Ghosh, B. B. Lal, M. N. Deshpande, B. K. Thapar, S. R. Rao, Y. D. Sharma and H. D. Sankalia.

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It is for the first time that a synthetic picture of agriculture in ancient India from the very beginning to the twelfth century is presented. It is based on evidence from archaeology, rock paintings, sculptures, coins, ancient Pali and Sanskrit literature, and travel accounts of Greek, Chinese and Central Asian travellers and scholars. Considering the magnitude of the task, I am aware of the imperfection of this synthesis. At the same time, I feel that it is the best which could be done in the present state of our knowledge of India's past. I hope that in due course persons who are better qualified than me will improve upon the text and fill the gaps in our knowledge. It is better to make a modest start than to wait for perfection.

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Kharar (near Chandigarh) 2 May 1980

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M. S. RANDHAWA

Acknowledgements

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FOR a work of this nature, in which a multi-disciplinary approach is involved, co-operation from many quarters is necessary. I am particularly grateful to Dr Vishnu-Mittre, of the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow, for providing reprints of his papers and photographs of food-grains discovered from archaeological sites in India. I am also grateful to Shri M. N. Deshpande, Director-General of the Archaeological Survery of India; Shri B. K. Thapar, Additional Director-General, Archaeological Survey of India; Dr B. B. Lal, Director of the Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Simla; and Dr H. D. Sankalia, Deccan College, Pune, for advice on various problems. Dr Sankalia has been generous enough to lend a number of illustrations including reconstructions of chalcolithic villages in Maharashtra. Shri Thapar permitted the use of maps showing the spread of Neolithic cultures. Dr Y. D. Sharma and Shri S. R. Rao generously provided illustrations, and also rare reprints of their papers. I am particularly grateful to Dr V. S. Wakankar, Vikram University, Ujjain, a pioneer in the study of rock paintings, who generously provided sketches of rock paintings.

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Out of the historians I am grateful to Dr Ram Sharan Sharma, Professor of History, University of Delhi, for his advice. He is the first scholar in India to provide an interpretation of the history of the country in the context of its material culture.

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I am grateful to Dr A. P. Khatri, Scientist, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, for providing illustrations of Neolithic tools. For illustrations of crops and domestic animals I have relied on the photo libraries of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, Indian Council of Agricultural Research and the Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. These institutions have talented photographers, viz. Hari Kishan Gorkha, Gurcharan Singh and S. K. Rode. I am grateful to the Directors of the National Museum, New Delhi, Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Bombay, Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad, and Chandigarh Museum for providing photographs of paintings. Miss R. Vanaja, Keeper, Numismatics and Epigraphy, National Museum, New Delhi, was kind enough to provide photographs of ancient coins and seals.

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For ¹⁴carbon dates of important archaeological sites I have relied on the work of Dr O. P. Agrawal, Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad.

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Dr Gurdev S. Khush, Head of the Plant Breeding Department, International Rice Research Institute, Philippines, was kind enough to provide rare books not available in India. I am grateful to Mr Edward Wegman, the UNESCO Press, Paris, for permission to reproduce four maps from History of Mankind: Cultural and Scientific Development, Vol. 1, "Prehistory and the Beginnings of Civilization", and to Prof. dr ir J. Doorenbos, Chairman, Editorial Committee, Wageningen Redactiecommissie, Mededelingen van de Landbouwhogeschool, Netherlands, for permission to reproduce a map on the distribution of the species of Cicer.

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I wish to thank the following publishers for permission to quote from their books: Cambridge University Press—The Indus Civilization by Sir Mortimer Wheeler; Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd—The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in Historical Outline by D. D. Kosambi; Cassell Ltd—Prehistoric India by Stuart Piggot; Oxford University Press—Harsha: A Political Study by D. Devahuti; Penguin Books Ltd—The Birth of Indian Civilization: India and Pakistan Before 500 B. C. by Bridget and Raymond Allchin; Hutchinson Publishing Group Ltd—A History of Domesticated Animals by F. E. Zeuner; the Dryden Press, Inc., and Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York—Fossil Men by M. Boule and H. V. Vallois; Allied Publishers Private Ltd, New Delhi—Advanced History of India by K. A. Nilakanta Sastri and G. Srinivasa-chari; M. S. Srinivas—Kautilya's Arthasastra by R. Shamasastry; Vikas Publishing House Private Ltd, New Delhi—Essay on South India by Burton Stein; Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay—The History and Culture of Indian People, Vols IV and V, by R.C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker; and Massachusetts University Press—Agricultural Origins and Dispersals by Carl Sauer.

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For cartography I have relied on the services of Mr D. S. Tiwana of the Punjab Agricultural University, Mr Mehar Singh of the Department of Geography, Panjab University, Chandigarh, and the Surveyor-General of India.

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I have been generously assisted by Mr T. P. Saxena, Librarian of the Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana; Dr J. S. Sharma, University Librarian, Panjab University Library, Chandigarh; Mr Rama Tirth, University Librarian, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar; Mr S. P. Phadnis, Head, Library Services, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi; Mr L. Ramachandran, Librarian, Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar; and the Librarian of the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore. Mr T. P. Saxena also prepared the index. For typing the manuscript and for general assistance I record my appreciation of the devoted work of Mr Ram Lal Sharma, my Personal Assistant-cum-Research Fellow, who worked indefatigably. But for his assistance it would not have been possible for me to handle an intricate work of this nature. Dr Kishan Singh Bedi was kind enough to edit the typescript. Mr M. K. Bardhan and Mr D. Hazra designed the title cover, and Mr O. P. Gulhati prepared the layout of the illustrations. For editorial work I am indebted to Messrs P. L. Jaiswal, S. N. Tata and R. S. Gupta. Mr T. C. S. Sastry, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, was of great help in standardizing botanical nomenclature. Mr K. E. Sankaran gave many useful suggestions. Mr Krishan Kumar looked after the production of this book ably and saw it through the press with a sense of dedication. In this work he was assisted by Shri J. B. Mehra.

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The first of these, the *Gospel of the Hebrews*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The *Gospel of the Egyptians* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The *Gospel of Peter* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so.

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These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete.

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The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation.

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By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church.

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The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations.

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CHAPTER 13. HARAPPAN AGRICULTURE 156 Cultivation of Wheat, Barley and Cotton

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CHAPTER 14. DOMESTIC ANIMALS OF THE HARAPPANS AND POUL- 183 TRY AND FISH

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CHAPTER 15. BURZAHOM — A NEOLITHIC RELICT CULTURE 216 IN A REFUGE AREA c. 2375 B.C.

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CHAPTER 16. NEOLITHIC AND CHALCOLITHIC SETTLEMENTS IN 239 SOUTH INDIA 2295 B.C.–1300 B.C. Cultivation of Millets and Pulses and Discovery of Silk

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CHAPTER 17. NEOLITHIC CULTURE OF EASTERN INDIA 262 2000 B.C. Cultivation of Rice, Bananas, Sugarcane and Yams

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CHAPTER 18. THE EARLY ARYANS—A BRONZE AGE PEOPLE 278 Domestication of the Horse, and Migration to India

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CHAPTER 19. THE VEDIC AGE 290 1500 B.C.–1000 B.C. Pastoralism, Hunting and Cultivation of Barley

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CHAPTER 20. THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD 301 1000 B.C.–600 B.C. Yajur-Veda, Samhitas, and Brahmanas; The Age of Iron and Painted Grey Ware; The Invention of the Iron Ploughshare and Axe; Clearance of Jungles, Expansion of Cultivation

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CHAPTER 21. THE BUDDHIST PERIOD 323 Sixth Century B.C. Birth of Buddhism and Jainism; Sacred Groves and Tree-Worship; Expansion of Cultivation in Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh

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CHAPTER 22. THE MAGADHAN EMPIRE 340 Fourth Century B.C. Civic Life, Artisans, Merchants and Money

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CHAPTER 23. RURAL ECONOMY AND ADMINISTRATION OF LAND 352 IN THE MAGADHAN EMPIRE

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CHAPTER 24. AGRICULTURE IN THE MAURYAN AGE 360 322 B.C.–232 B.C.

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CHAPTER 25. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN THE MAURYAN AGE 365

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CHAPTER 26. ASOKA PROMOTES ARBORICULTURE AND HORTI- 379 CULTURE

Contents

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CHAPTER 27. FROM SUNGAS TO THE ŚATAVAHANAS AND KUSHANS 387 200 B.C.-A.D. 300; Brick-wells and Improved Agricultural Implements of Iron; Cultivation of Rice and Coconut Palms

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CHAPTER 28. THE KINGDOMS OF SOUTH INDIA 403 Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas; First Century of the Christian Era to A.D. 300; Cultivation of Rice, Ragi Sugarcane, Pepper and Turmeric, and Tank Irrigation

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CHAPTER 29. THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS 410 A.D. 300-A.D. 550; Renaissance in Art, Literature and Science; High Level of Iron Technology and Progressive Agriculture

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CHAPTER 30. THE KANAUJ EMPIRE OF HARSHAVARDHANA 420 A.D. 606-A.D. 647; Life of the People of India and their Agriculture, as Described in Hiuen-Tsang’s Si-Yu-Ki and Bana’s Harshacharita

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CHAPTER 31. THE KINGDOMS OF SOUTH INDIA 436 The Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas of the Deccan; The Pallavas, Pandyas, Hoysalas and Kakatiyas; A.D. 535-A.D. 1300; People, Crops and Cattle

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CHAPTER 32. THE KINGDOMS OF SOUTH INDIA 457 The Cholas; A.D. 985-A.D. 1205; their Irrigation Systems

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CHAPTER 33. VILLAGES OF SOUTH INDIA DURING THE CHOLA RULE 462 Tenth Century to Twelfth Century; Tenure, Land Revenue and Rent; Economic Condition of the Rural People

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CHAPTER 34. RAJPUT KINGDOMS OF NORTHERN INDIA 471 Pratiharas, Gahadvalas, Chauhans, Pramaras and Chandellas; The Pala and Sena Dynasties of Bengal; Eighth Century to Eleventh Century; Observations of Alberuni on India and Indians; Industry, Trade and Agriculture

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CHAPTER 35. OBSERVATIONS OF MEDHATITHI, PARASHARA AND KASHYAPA ON AGRICULTURE 482 Ninth Century to Eleventh Century

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APPENDICES

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I. Landmarks in the Evolution of Man, his Culture and Agriculture 491

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II. Radiocarbon Dates of Important Archaeological Sites in India and Pakistan 494

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III. Chronology—Ancient India—Development of Science, Technology and Agriculture, and Important Personalities and Events 498

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IV. Cultivated Plants in India, and their Places of Origin 501

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V. Select List of Plants Mentioned in Sanskrit Literature 506

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VI. Principal Crops of India and their Sanskrit Names 510

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VII. Principal Domestic Animals of India and their Sanskrit Names 511

List of Illustrations

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1. Palaeogeographic map of Gondwanaland in the middle and upper Cretaceous (After Ahmad) 3

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2. During the upper Cretaceous, stupendous volcanic outbursts overwhelmed a vast area in what is now Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. From the lava, the black cotton soil was formed over the ages 5

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3. The occurrence of Archaean and Purana Rocks and the Deccan Trap in India. 10

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4. Soil map of India (After S. P. Raychaudhuri) 13

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5. The Indo-Gangetic plain in the Punjab has a rich alluvial soil, which produces bumper crops of wheat and rice 17

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6. The deep black soils in the Pune District, Maharashtra, produce bumper crops of cotton, sugaracane and rice. The fields are dotted with trees of mango and *Acacia nilotica*. In the background are the flat-topped mountains of the Deccan Trap 17

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7. The medium black cotton soil of trap and gneissic origin in the Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu, yields rich crops of cotton and sugarcane 18

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8. Barren Archaean granite is covered with a thin layer of soil at Hampi, in the Bellary District, Karnataka. Good soil is found only in the low-lying areas 18

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9. A forest of sal (*Shorea robusta*), Dehra Dun. Sal forests are found at the foothills of the Himalayas from Uttar Pradesh and Assam. They are also found in the forest belt comprising southern Bihar, western Orissa and eastern Madhya Pradesh (Courtesy: Forest Research Institute) 31

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10. A young forest of *Pinus roxburghii* in the Siwaliks, Uttar Pradesh (Courtesy: Forest Research Institute) 32

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11. A forest of *Cedrus deodara* near Simla, 2,134 metres above sea-level. *Cedrus deodara* is the most stately tree in the forests of the western Himalayas (Courtesy: Forest Research Institute) 33

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12. A dry deciduous forest containing *Boswellia serrata* and *Acacia catechu* in Madhya Pradesh (Courtesy: Forest Research Institute) 34

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13. A forest of teak (*Tectona grandis*) in Madhya Pradesh (Courtesy: Forest Research Institute) 35

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14. A tropical wet evergreen forest in Kerala. *Left to right*: small *Dipterocarpus bourdillonii*, *Vitex altissima*, large *Dipterocarpus*, large *Kingiodendron pinnatum* and *Polyalthia* sp. Shendurney Coupe V, Shencottah Division, Kerala (Courtesy: Forest Research Institute) 36

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15. The Nilgiri *sholas* and grassland, Ootacamund, Tamil Nadu. The *shola* forests are a living fossil community limited to the hollows, especially the heads of water-courses. Once destroyed, they do not regenerate (Courtesy: Forest Research Institute) 37

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16. Pure *sundri* forest (*Heritiera fomes*), Sunderbans, West Bengal, showing dense pneumatophore growth and buttressing of trees (Courtesy: Forest Research Institute) 38

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17. Hominoid sites in the Siwaliks in India and Pakistan: Haritalynagar near Bilaspur (Himachal Pradesh), Kirmu and Dal Sar near Ramnagar (Jammu), and the Salt Range in the Attock and Jhelum Districts, Pakistan (After A. P. Khatri) 48

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18. Reconstruction of the skull of *Ramapithecus* (After Jelinek) 50

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19. A group of rhesus monkeys, Mughal A.D. 1596 (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi) 51

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20. Principal deposits of fossil man in Africa. (i) Transvaal Sites, *Australopithecus africanus* and *Australopithecus robustus*, about 2 million years old; Dart, 1924, and Broom, 1936; (ii) Olduvai Gorge; *Australopithecus boisei* (1959) and *Homo habilis* (1961), both 1.8 million years old; Louis and Mary Leakey; (iii) the lower Omo River: early hominids, ranging from 1 million to 4 million years old; Howell and Coppens, 1969; (iv) Lake Turkana: *Homo* skull, 2 million to 3 million years old (1972), and 1.5-million-year-old *Homo erectus* skull (1975); Richard Leakey; (v) Laetolil; 3.35- to 3.75-million-year-old *Homo* jaw-bones and teeth; Mary Leakey, 1974-75; and (vi) Hadar: "Lucy", 3-million-year-old *Australopithecus* skeleton, and *Homo* "family"; Johanson and Taieb, 1974-75 52

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21. The world in the middle part of the Quaternary period. The darker areas were glaciated. The Himalayan glaciers descended into lower valleys 56

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22. Discovery of fire and fashioning of pebble tools were the major achievements of Peking man, about half a million years ago (Reconstruction from the Museum of Evolution of Life, Chandigarh) 57

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23. A comparison of the cranial sizes: chimpanzee 400 cc; *Homo erectus erectus* 860 cc; *Sinanthropus* 1,075 cc; *Homo sapiens fossilis* 1,300 cc; modern man 1,400 cc; Neanderthal man 1,500 cc 57

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24. The most primitive Palaeolithic stone tools are choppers from Soãn, Pothohar Plateau, West Panjab, Pakistan. They were 25. cutting-tools and were used for cutting chunks of meat and to scrape hides. They are about half a million years old Acheulian hand-axe complex from Attirampakkam, Chingleput District, Tamil Nadu, approximately 200,000 years old. A cutting-tool edged on both sides, it was used for digging, chopping and cutting 58

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26. Primitve men fashioning Acheulian stone tools, about 200,000 years old. One of them is flaying a hunted animal with a hand-axe (Reconstruction from the Museum of Evolution of Life, Chandigarh) 59

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27. Important sites from which Palaeolithic tools have been discovered in India and Pakistan. Apart from the sites shown in this map, stone tools have been discovered from numerous other places (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 60

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28. Major sites where the remains of *Homo erectus* have been found. Skirting mountain barriers and deserts, *Homo erectus* spread from the tropics of east Africa, northern India, Java and China to temperate lands of Asia and Europe over a period of a million years 66

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29. Skull of: 1, modern chimpanzee: 2, modern man; 3, Neanderthal man; 4, Peking man; 5, *Australopithecus* (hominid); 6, *Proconsul africanus*; 7, *Adapis parisiensis*, an ancient lemur. An increase in the size of brain and its complexity and a reduction in brow-ridges in man as compared with hominids is noteworthy (Courtesy: UNESCO) 67

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30. The comparative occurrence of chopper-chopping tools and bifacial hand-axes. Chopper-chopping tools were more common in the Siwaliks of India and Pakistan. Bifacial hand-axes predominated in the south (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 72

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31. The Stone Age sites in Himachal Pradesh and Punjab. A number of such sites have been discovered in the Kangra Valley in Himachal Pradesh and in the Valley of the Sirsa River above Chandigarh (After H. D. Sankalia) 73

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32. The distribution of Neanderthal man (After Charles Singer *et al.*, *History of Technology*, Vol. 1, 1954. The Clarendon Press, Oxford) 75

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33a. Adamgarh rock-shelters near Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh. These cave-shelters were occupied by Palaeolithic and Mesolithic hunters. The lower levels yielded palaeoliths and the upper microliths 85

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33b. Detail of a cave-shelter at Adamgarh. The overhanging rock provided shelter to hunters against inclement weather.

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The roof is painted with hunting-scenes. 85

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34. Microliths from Birbhanpur, District Burdwan, near the Damodar Valley, West Bengal, 4000 B.C. They include blades, lunates, points and borers and burins (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 86

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35. A Mesolithic scene. A man is shooting an arrow tipped with a sharp microlith at an antelope. The other is throwing on a deer a spear tipped with a sharpened stone (Reconstruction from the Museum of Evolution of Life, Chandigarh) 87

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36. Toys from Mohenjo-daro, depicting a variety of dogs (After Mackay) 87

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37. Cave-shelters at Bhimbetaka, near Bhopal, Raisen District, Madhya Pradesh. The walls and roofs of cave-shelters have paintings dating from the Mesolithic to the early historic period 88

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38. Interior of the cave at Bhimbetaka. This cave has been in occupation since Palaeolithic times, as is evidenced by the discovery of Acheulian tools from the lowermost layer 89

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39. Stone-tool types from the Palaeolithic to the Neolithic age 84

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40. A rock-shelter at Bhimbetaka. The roof is painted with figures of gaur, deer, sambhar, etc. (Courtesy: A. P. Khatri) 90

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41. Mesolithic painting from a cave-shelter at Bhimbetaka. Herds of *cheetal*, wild buffaloes and cattle are shown 90

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42a. A gaur from a cave painting at Bhimbetaka 91

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42b. A buffalo-bull—a Mesolithic painting from a cave-shelter at Bhimbetaka 91

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43. Chronological and stylistic development of rock-painting in India (After V. S. Wakankar) 93

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44. Life in the Mesolithic age: 1, amorous couples; 2, pregnant women; 3, the birth of a child; 4, child-rearing; 5, children playing; 6, initiation of a child; 7, cure by magic; 8, ceremony for the dead; 9, the burial of a child, and a family in mourning (After V. S. Wakankar) 94

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45. A Mesolithic painting from Bhimbetaka. Hunters armed with bows, arrows and spears are chasing game. Human figures are elongated to show rhythmic action (After V. S. Wakankar) 95

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46. Animals depicted in Bhimbetaka rock-paintings: 1, a wild buffalo; 2, a gaur; 3, a rhinoceros; 4, a boar; 5, a chinkara; 6, a spotted deer; 7, a sambhar; 8, a deer; 9, a blue bull (*nilgai*); 10, an elephant; 11, a tiger or panther; 12, a tiger (After V. S. Wakankar) 98

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47. African birds and animlas in Mesolithic cave-paintings from Madhya Pradesh: *top*, a giraffe, Bhimbetaka; *middle*, ostriches, Bazar Cave, Pachmarhi; *bottom*, giraffes, Adamgarh cave-shelter, near Hoshangabad 92

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48. A Neolithic rural scene, depicting the harvesting of wheat and barely with stone sickles, with clusters of huts in the background (Reconstruction from the Museum of Evolution of Life, Chandigarh) 105

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49. The distribution of the wild ancestors of domestic plants and animals in the Old World (Based on a map in Sonia Cole, *The Neolithic Revolution*; by permission of the trustees of the British Museum, Natural History; courtesy: UNESCO) 106

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50. The diffusion of farming into Asia and Europe (Based on a map in Sonia Cole, *The Neolithic Revolution*; by permission of the Trustees of the British Museum, Natural History; courtesy: UNESCO) 106

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51. Neolithic sites in South-West Asia and eastern Europe (After J. Braidwood, Oriental Institute, University of Chicago: courtesy: UNESCO) 108

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52. Ancestry of common wheat (After P. C. Mangelsdorf) 108

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53a. Neolithic cultures of Indian subcontinent 116

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53b. Neolithic cultures of Indian subcontinent and relative chronology based on ¹⁴C dating (After B. K. Thapar) 117

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54. Zebu bulls painted on pottery, and bull figurines, Kulli Culture, from a site in Kolwa, in southern Baluchistan (After S. Piggot) 119

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55. A Brahmani bull, Mughal, eighteenth century (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi) 123

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56. The wild goat (*Capra hircus*) is still found in the barren hills of Baluchistan and western Sind. It is the chief ancestral stock from which the various breeds of domestic goat have been derived 124

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57. Domestication of sheep and goats. Toys and seals from Mohenjo-daro: *top*, a ram; *middle, left*, a wild goat (*Capra hircus*); *middle, right*, a domesticated goat: *bottom*, a domesticated goat (After Mackay and Vats) 125

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58. The *nayan* (*Ovis amon hodgsoni*), the largest wild sheep with curled horns, is found in northern Ladakh, Spiti, Sikkim, Kumaon, Nepal and Tibet. The legend is that it eats snakes. Mughal, early eighteenth century (Courtesy: Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad) 126

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59. Dumba, a breed of sheep with a fat tail. Mughal, early eighteenth century (Courtesy: Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Bombay) 127

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60. Markhor (*Capra falconeri*), a wild goat with horns spirally twisted like a cork-screw, is found in Afghanistan and from Hazara to the Pir Panjal mountain range in Kashmir. Mughal, seventeenth century (Courtesy: Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad) 128

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61. Harappan and pre-Harappan sites (After Y. D. Sharma) 131

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62. Systematic town-planning with rectangular blocks separated by broad main streets as seen is excavated remains at Mohenjo-daro, Sind, Pakistan, 2300 B.C. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 133

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63. Head of a bearded man wearing a shawl with trefoil motif. The shawl was possibly of cotton. Mohenjo-daro, 2300 B.C. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 134

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64. A bronze figure of a nude dancing-girl wearing bracelets (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi) 135

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65. A painted dish on stand. This type of pottery is typical of Harappan Civilization. Harappa, 2300 B.C. 135

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66. Bronze objects, axes, knife, a chisel, etc., from Sind and Harappa (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 136

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67. A schematic section across the Nalagarh mound at Rupar, 1953, showing strata, 2000 B.C. to A.D. 600. In the lowest stratum, Harappan wares with bronze implements were discovered. These were overlain by Painted Grey Ware 140

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68. Sequence of Rupar culture from sections of the Nalagarh mound, Rupar, Punjab (After Y. D. Sharma) 141

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69. Ringed soak-wells for draining waste water from houses in the Nalagarh mound (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 143

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70. A burial from Rupar. A number of pots, some containing foodgrains, were buried along with the corpse (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 143

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71. A reconstruction of the Harappan town near Chandigarh, c. 2000 B.C. (Courtesy: Museum of Evolution of Life, Chandigarh) 144

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72. A reconstruction of the proto-historic village of Ahar (After H. D. Sankalia) 144

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73. Excavation at Ahar near Udaipur, in Rajasthan. Corn bins and chulahs are shown. Rice grains were found along with pottery, 1800 B.C. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 145

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74. A well and a public drain at Lothal, a Harappan site in Saurashtra, 2300 B.C. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 146

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75. Geographical distribution of wheat and barley, together with dates, in the Indian subcontinent (After Vishnu-Mittre) 164

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76. Wheat cultivation in the Neolithic period and in the present age (After (Vishnu-Mittre) 165

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77. Distribution of the genus *Cicer* and the main areas of cultivation of *C. arietinum* in the Old World. The dotted line encloses the areas where the species of genus *Cicer* are found. The continuous line encloses the areas where *C. arietinum* is cultivated (After L. J. G. van der Maesen) 167

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78. Plough, terracotta, 7 × 19.7 cm. Mohenjo-daro, *c.* 2300 B.C. (Courtesy: Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay) 169

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79. A seal from Lothal with a picture of a seed-drill (After S. R. Rao) 169

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80. Furrow marks of ploughed land on the southern side of KLB 2, Kalibangan, Rajasthan (*top*) (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India)

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The present-day method of ploughing (*bottom*) very much resembles the ancient one 170

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81. Terracotta toy-carts from Lothal (After S. R. Rao) 171

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82. A toy-cart from Harappa, with solid wheels (*left, top*), and frame of the toy-cart (*left, bottom*) (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India)

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The bullock-cart in the present-day Sind (*right*) is not far removed from the Harappan cart 172

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83. A toy-cart from Mohenjo-daro. It was possibly used for carting manure (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi) 172

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84. Toys modelled on wild animals, depicting hare, tiger, pangolin, monkey, crocodile and wild boar (After Mackay) 173

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85. Women pounding barley with wooden pestles in a village home in Haryana. The stone mortar is embedded in the floor. In the fore-ground is a *chhaj* for winnowing husk (Courtesy: H. K. Gorkha, Indian Agricultural Research Institute) 174

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86. Isometric projections of the great granary, Harappa (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 174

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87. Carbonized grains of *Cicer arietinum* from a Harappan site, Kalibangan, Rajasthan (*top*). Carbonized grains of *Triticum sphaerococcum* from a Harappan site, Mohenjo-daro, Sind (*bottom, left*). Carbonized grains of *Hordeum* sp., from a Harappan site, Kalibangan, Rajasthan (*bottom, right*) (After Vishnu-Mittre) 175

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88. A saddle-quern recovered from a Harappan settlement, Sector 17, Chandigarh, *c.* 2200 B.C. (Courtesy: Museum of Rural Life of the Punjab, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana) 175

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89. A terracotta from Mohenjo-daro, showing a woman kneading flour (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi) 175 90. Carbonized wheat grains from Mohenjo-daro dated to 1755 B.C. by ¹⁴C method. They compare with those of *Triticum sphaerococcum* (Courtesy: Genetics Museum, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi) 176

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91. Seeds of mustard from Chanhu-daro, Sind (Courtesy: Genetics Museum, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi) 177

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92. A plant of *Gossypium arboreum* with open bolls. This cotton plant was known to the Harappans (Courtesy: Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi) 178

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93. Distribution of zebu cattle in the world. The home of the zebu cattle is the Indian sub-continent. It has been recently introduced into Brazil and the southern USA 187

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94. Seals and toys depicting domesticated animals. *Top row, left and centre, humpless bulls; right, a buffalo. Middle row, left, a humped bull of a breed close to Kankrej of Gujarat; centre and right, bulls with forward-projecting horns, resembling urus (Bos primigenius) of Europe. Bottom row, left, a humpless bull; middle, a humped bull (all from Mohenjo-daro; after Mackay and Vats). Bottom row, right, a humped bull from Sector 17, Chandigarh* 195

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