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Defence Architecture in Early North Karnataka c18: Chapter - IX

Defence Architecture in Early North Karnataka c18

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English

Contents

Chapter - IX

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(i) An examination of the plan and the mode of construction of the forts studied in the preceding chapters in relation to the standard silpa texts, dealing with In the preceding chapters the forts in the capital places are described and their architectural features as well as strategic significance are critically discussed. Now it would be worthwhile to examine what traditional knowledge had been at the root in planning these forts. Ofcourse, theoretical canons in general could not have been implicitly followed in the construction of the forts by their builders, for each region and period on the one hand and the existing political conditions as well as actual equipment and methods of war on the other would indirectly influence the planning of a matching fort. Obviously, therefore, there should be some innovations which do not find place in or subscribe to the descriptions in the canons. It is with this understanding, let us try to examine how far the forts studied conform to some important treatises on polity and architecture that deal with the construction of forts. And in such relative examination, it would be possible to trace the regional variations and possibly the reasons for such special devices. However, it should also be noted that the forts that have been discussed are not intact and have undergone substantial changes or inruins. Consequently, it is not possible always to find out the relative significance between the extant forts and the traditional texts.

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The Vēdas:

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Apart from the relevant texts dating from about 3rd century B.C. beginning with Kautilya's Arthaśāstra, there are references to forts even in the Vēdas. For instance Indra is described as 'Purandara'. He is described as having destroyed a hundred forts (Bhattacharya Sripadasharma Damodarabhatta, 1940, P.461). But these references do not give clear picture of the actual architecture of the forts. At best, that many cities in the Vēdic period had fortifications, is known. The date of the Vēdic texts referring to such fortified cities namely the Rigvēda is very much disputed. The consensus of the opinions is c. 2000 B.C., as the most probable date of the compilation of the Rigvēda.

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But fortunately, the lack of sufficient details about the fort architecture is compensated by the discovery of the Harappan fortification walls (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5) in the sites at Harappā (Mete, M.S., 1970, pp. 75-84), Kālibangan, (Lal, B.B. and Thapar, B.K., 1967, p. 20), Surkotda (IA<ins>R</ins>, 1970-71, p. 13 and 1971-72, p. 13, Fig. 2) etc. We fairly get thereat actual picture of the fortification walls.

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After the end of the Harappan Civilization the remains of fortification walls are traced in Rājgir etc. "Immensely strong and cyclopean proportions of these walls of Rājgriha consists of a rough pile of massive undressed stones, each between 3ft. and 5ft. composed of smaller blocks carefully fitted and bounded together the core between is composed of smaller blocks less carefully prepared with fragments packed within the interstices; no mortar appears to have been used," (Brown Percy, 1976 Ed. 7, Part I, p. 4).

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From the Mauryan period onwards, i.e., in the Kautilya's Arthaśāstra a detailed descriptive rules regarding the construction of the forts are available. Some important textual extracts of the different periods beginning from the Kautilya's Arthaśāstra, relevant to the study of the forts made above are given in the Appendix.

A Critical Coordination

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The detailed descriptive canonical account about the building up of the forts (Fig.78) given in Kautilya's *Arthaśāstra*, as briefly given in the Appendix, is not without any basis. The Harappan fortifications (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5) have within, the main roads at the principal axis intersecting at the centre, oriented to the cardinal points, with many parallel lanes. This kind of planning of the streets had resulted in numerous blocks aligned systematically in rows. Further, the northern part served as the citadel. Now, when compared with the plan of the Harappan fortifications (Fig.5), one will be amazed to see the close similarities in the essential layout of the forts in practice during the Harappan times and in theory suggested by Kautilya. Kauṭilya, being a more scholar-politician, speaks of the princip^e\^ls in general. We find further in the comparison that there is a considerable advancement in the methods of the construction and layout of forts during the time of Kautilya. The most singular and very important addition to be noted is enclosed of a fort by moats (Fig.80 and Fig. 81) alongside the wall, on the outside. Besides, provision of circular bastions in many numbers at regular intervals guarding the gateways is another noteworthy feature. These developments are obviously due to the advancement of the technology of making of and varieties of weapons.

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The Harappans used (Fig.92) spears, shaft-holed-axes bows, arrows,celts, swords etc. of bronzes sparingly. But as well-known from Kautilya that the Mauryan period was highly advanced in technology and Iron was profusely used. The weapons (Fig.93) are of varieties and far more effective.

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Now, the Mauryan fort is not completely excavated and laid bare (Mishra,V.K. and Altekar,A.S., 1959, pp. 6-8) for understanding the theoretical guide lines of Kautilya. Hence Kautilya's canons are extremely important to know to what extent it has been useful for the builders of forts in the succeeding ages. For this kind of understanding it is, therefore, necessary to have the conjectural drawing as enunciated in the text. The same (Fig.78) prepared by me is given below.

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The architectural drawing (Fig.78) displays a circular fort divided by three principal parallel roads. One set being oriented east-west and the other set north-south. They, therefore, divide the interior area into 16 blocks and these roads pass through the fort and across the moats on the outside. Thus there are 12 gateways at the intersection of the fort walls and the roads at regular intervals. The fort is enclosed by three concentric moats at regular intervals.

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Kautilya gives even the measurements of the moats, fort-wall etc. (Fig.78). The outermost should be of 14 Dandas, the intermediate 12 and the innermost 10. Inbetween the moats there is a bund (embankment) of 2 Dandas wide. It may be noted that the width of the moat decreases by 2 Dandas from (decreases by 2 Dandas from) the outermost to the innermost. It has been after a careful study by experts in Silpa texts like Shama Sastry,R. and Acharya,P.K. etc. that a 'Danda' is found to be equivalent (Shama Sastry,R., 1956, Re.Ed. PP.60-61) to 6 feet or 1.80 metres.

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The main entrance is from the east; and the two blocks in the interior flanking the main central road should be of burial grounds, they in turn are flanked by stables of cows and horses and the settlements of the people of low castes. The place at the centre is meant for temples; and the Citadel for the royal family etc. is to be located in the north-west block abutting the central area.

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Coming to the structural details, the moats should have sloping sides from top to the middle point and then vertical sides to the bottom. The fortwall must have at the bottom trap-passages filled with all kinds of injurious instruments at different points. The construction of the fort wall is of two types: One is about 6 Dandas wide with vertical sides having plain wall walk on the sides with parapet-walls at the both the edges. The outer parapet-wall is doubly higher than the inner. The other type is that the lower half of the wall is vertical on sides and the upper half is bulgeous. On the inner side of the fort wall is a ramp well set by the tramplings of the elephants.

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With this brief description of and reference to the conjectural drawing (Fig.78), let us try to understand the safety measures for the inmates of the fort and ununderstandable dangers to enemies implied in planning. First of all the moats (Fig. 79 and Fig. 80) are very wide and three in numbers; the total width is of 46 Daṇḍas including the space between the innermost moat and the fort wall. There is some strategic importance in having such a distance from the edge of the outermost moat to the fort. It is more or less a fact that if an arrow is shot with utmost force aimed at a particular person it can go straight to a distance of about 60 m. and then in the meanwhile owing to the gravitational force it gradually slides down. Therefore, when enemy is at the point of the outermost moat his shots with arrows, spears etc. towards the protectors of the fort would miss the object and become ineffective. Secondly the moats are so wide that it would not be easy to cross; further in the moats generally are reared crocodiles and other acquatic creatures fatal to those who fall in. So crossing moats even swiftly is wrought with many dangers. Enemies are forced to follow the main streets. When enemies try to squeeze in by the roads naturally they are not having enough space to move about and are practically trapped and hit by the protectors guarding the gateways. Suppose soldiers try to get along the bunds, the upper parts of the moats are sloping inwards and even a slight slip would throw them into the moat. Even if they succeed to approach the gateways and try to steal a way through the fort, they are enticed by the underground passages. The enemies who try to crawl in through the passage (Fig.82 and Fig.84) would actually get their knees broken and their body scratched/and torn with the pointed sharp instruments scattered Other kinds of Forts

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Kautilya also deals with other kinds of forts, for example: Jaladurga (Fig. 87). This is to be built in a roughly hexagonal layout, with harbours on the opposite sides and soldiers guarding the entrances in the other opposite sides. With the temple at the centre, the main streets run in a radial way surrounded by paramount buildings such as royal palaces, mansions of ministers, public offices, buildings of nobles, houses of Brahmanes. These in turn are surrounded by soldiers.

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Thus from Kautilya's concept of the fort, we can understand that almost all the basic safety measures for the inmates and fatal obstacles (Fig. 82 and Fig. 84) to the incoming enemies have been thought of, thus giving a very secure planning of a fort. It is not that the fort should be constructed exactly in the way that has been enunciated by him; in fact he did not obviously mean it. What is noteworthy is that, all possible measures most favourable to subjects and fatal to enemies have already been suggested in this concept.

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This treatise has proved to be an excellent guide for the builders making some necessary alterations and additions, depending upon the site selected for, the local resources on the one hand and the techniques and weapons of war on the other. Hence, in the study of the actual forts one cannot find an exact replica of the concept in it, but does find the necessary precautionary devices modelled after this concept.

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Among the writers subsequent to Kautilya, sage Mānasāra (C. 450 A.D. – 550 A.D.) is probably the foremost. He discusses the forts of different orders and thus numerically more comprehensive than Kautilya. He grades the important strategic places in a kingdom as follows:

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1. Khēṭa fort (Fig. 89)
2. Kubjaka fort (Fig. 89)
3. Drōṇa fort (Fig. 90)
4. Giridurga, and (Fig.89)
5. Rājadhānīya fort. (Fig.91)

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Now, Khēṭa: (Fig.89) is usually a trading centre to be protected well in the interest of the prosperity of the kingdom. In general,it should be oblong semi-octagonal in plan on the bank of a river with 3 concentric fortifications. On one side is a river and on the other, a land. The entrances are from the land side and from the Ghat on the river facing each other. From the entrance on the land side two more streets run diagonally to the outermost fortification upto the junction, where there are the gates. At the main entrance on the land side, the gate opens a road round the temple and within the fortification the space is meant for traders and agriculturists. In the space in the middle and innermost fortification are the working class i.e. Sudras. In the space between the middle and outermost, on the river side are markets and godowns. The outermost fortification generally has octagonal bastions at the corner-angles. The four entrances in the outermost fortification are flanked by square bastions.

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The next in order is the fort of Kubjaka town (Fig.89) - small town probably meant to be an official Headquarters. This type of fort is also generally located on the river side with oblong layout having partial octagonal projections on the river side. The main streets run across the principal axis with parallel lands dividing the habitation area into well aligned blocks. It recalls the layout of Harappan town (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5). At the centre is located as usual a temple surrounded by palace, office-buildings and mansions of the officers. In the next blocks of the next round are scattered Ministers, Brahmanas and soldiers. And in the remaining blocks are the public of different categories located in particular areas.

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Another type of fort i.e. probably meant for a provincial Headquarters is Drōna durga (Fig.90). It is trapezium in plan having two concentric fortification walls surrounded by series of moats i.e. ditches. The external fortification wall has got 4 bastions at regular intervals. And the main entrance is located at the centre of the longer parallel wall. The interior, as in the case of Kubjaka durga (Fig. 89) is divided into 4 blocks by the main streets running along the principal axis. The area within the inner fortification wall is divided into regular blocks by lanes. At the centre is a temple and in the blocks are palace, public offices, residential buildings of brahmanas. They are in turn surrounded by the army, traders servants and markets.

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The strategic hilly area is recommended for circular fort consisting of two or three concentric fortifications with main streets running in radial way from the centre where a temple is located. The fort must be on the summit of a hill with deep valley all round which in turn is surrounded by hill ranges. It is Giridurga (Fig.88).

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Finally, Mānasāra discusses the fort to be built in Rājadhānī (Fig.91) of an emperor. The general layout must be oblong measuring about 7500 Rods x 5000 Rods (i.e. 7½ miles x 5 miles or 12 kilometres x 8 kilometres). These measurements indicate the Rājadhāni fort to be a very vast extensive township. There are four concentric oblong fortification walls, the innermost encloses the principal temple of the Rājadhāni. On the exterior side of the walls are imposing niches meant for alternately Śiva and Vishnu images for worship. From the temple run the main streets along the principal axis. It is surrounded by royal palace, public halls, quarters for ministers and state officers and residential buildings of Brāhmanas, within the second enclosure.

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In the space between the II and III fortification walls are important buildings for Kshatriyas, ministers, armies, physicians, markets etc. and between the III and IV fortification walls are traders artisans etc. and guards-men are at the entrances, and on the inner side of the outermost fortification wall are barracks for soldiers.

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So, by the time of Mānasāra, we maynote the intricate development of fort architecture in relation to the strategic importance in a kingdom. Thus there has been already a well developed system and plan through the construction of forts of various kinds for the protection of the important areas of the kingdom.

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A study of these treatises would, therefore, give us a very comprehensive picture of the different kinds of forts for respective places of relative importance.

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Thus the early works exhaust almost all defensive contrivences, the later works more or less repeat the above types in varying styles. Thus, a review of relevant sections of these two works would provide the necessary clues for understanding the development of fort architecture through the ages in practice. With this background let us examine the forts under study.

The forts in North Karnataka and the Śilpa texts:

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After having briefly noted the essential features in the descriptive concepts of forts by the two most well known writers Kautilya and Mānasāra, let us try to know how far the forts (Fig.2) in North-Karnāṭaka studied reflect the ideas of these two writers. The earliest in the series of the forts studied are those at Banavāsi and Sannati as well as the one at Hāngal. Of course, excepting the one at Sannati the other two have later alterations and additions.

The Fort in Banavāsi

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The fort in Banavāsi is oval shaped in plan measuring 850 m. north-south and 600 m. east-west, with the temple in the central area and the medieval alignments of the roads whtiin the fort may well be taken as the continuation of the earliest. Perhaps there may be some in the later times added to the earliest. The two principal streets running north-south seem to be the original. Similarly the one that runs east-west immediately to the south of the temple Madhukēśvara is in all probability of the same category. What is noteworthy here is that there are parallel straight roads running north-south and east-west, intersecting almost at right angles. On the outside is a moat of the width of 14 m - 20 m.

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In a sense, therefore, the fort of Banavāsi seems to have been after the pattern of Jaladurga (Fig.87) and Sthala durga (Fig.78) enunciated by Kautilya. Of course, the plan is determined more by the local configuration of the land and cannot be closely similar to the ideal description of Kautilya. We find in Banavāsi thet the fort wall follows the contour of the land. The area in between the contour lines 650 and 625 is almost fully occupied by the fort, and the height of this area is immediately prominent in relation to the surrounding region in the height from 625 m to 610 m.

The Fortification in Sannati

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The fortification in Sannati seems to represent a proto-type of what has been described in the Mānasāra for a Khēṭa.

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Here the ancient Sannati is located within the steep curve of the river Bhīmā. There are two concentric fortification walls. On the river side in between the fortification wall is a brick built Ghāt and there is no moat on the exterior side of the outermost fortification.

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As noted above that Sannati was essentially a place of trade and commerce, and must have been on the ancient trade route between Kānchi and Paithan. Thus in a sense, Mānesāra's theory of Khētedurga (Fig.89) seems to be an idealised form what is there in places like Sannati.

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Again, the location of the stupas away from the fortification area is typical of Buddhist religion. It may be noted here that similar situation is extant at Kārlā, Ajanta, Pithalkhōra etc. Buddhist Chaityālayas, stūpās and Vihāras are generally built away from the habitation area, for the Budhist monks were to carry out the religious practices and study and are not to be disturbed from the din and bustle of the town life. For the purpose of preaching and begging they are expected to visit cities from their place of sojourn. On the other hand in the case of Brahmanical religion temple is the centre of cultural activities, such as imparting of education, trial of cases of judgement, religious discourses, performance of dances and music etc. Naturally, it is advisable that the temple should be at the habitation area so that it is accessible to all people easily. If there was any brahmanical temple in Sannati is to be known only from excavations. The present temple of Chandralāmbā on the river bank away from the outer fortification is of late Rāṣṭrakūṭa, by which time the fortifications were in disuse and the habitation was in the vicinity of the temple.

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The Fort in Hāngal (Fig.53)

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Now, the innermost fort at Hangal comprising Enclosure I and Enclosure II belongs to the Śātavāhana - Kadamba period. Within the inner fortification wall is a temple dedicated to Īśvara almost at the centre. Of course, this temple is of 11-12 century A.D. and the fortifications too had been renovated and are enlarged. However, in view of the copper plate grants of the Banavāsi Krishnavarma-II of the early Kadambas, there should have been brahmin community here well versed in the Vēdas and Sāstras and performing Yajnas (E.I. 1952, Vol.II, No.1, pp. 1ff). Hence, it would not be unreasonable to say that within the inner fort there was a temple during the Sātavāhana - Kadamba period. As the fortification is a little away from the river bank a moat has been provided round the fortification i.e. Enclosure III, which is fed by the Sastrikere and Anekere. The provision of the moats to the fortification indicates the political importance of the place. However, it is essentially of the <ins>Khēṭa type</ins> (Fig.89) of fort of Mānasāra.

The Fort in Bādāmi

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The fort on the North Hill of the Bādāmi Chālukyas dated to mid 6th century A.D. is a typical example of Giridurga (Fig.89). It is polygonal in plan inevitably after the natural top edge of the hill. It immediately reminds of the Karvaṭa (Fig.88) type of fort discussed by Mānasāra in his work which more or less immediately precedes the fort (543 A.D.). The builders of the fort, therefore, in view of the proximity of the period of the work, may be expected of as knowing well the different types of forts discussed in the work.

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Of course, within the fort excepting the two temples Upper and Lower Śivālayas, there are no remains. Further as the hill top is mostly of bare rock surface intersected by deep valleys alignment of streets etc. cannot be known. Further there, the top area is not so extensive as to accommodate numerous buildings in alignment.

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The Upper Śivālaya is more or less in the centure of the fort, and the Lower Śivālaya originally probably Gaṇēśa temple is in the mid-way. The entrance is very well protected by closed barbican. It should be noted that the North Hill is surrounded by the deep valleys on all sides, which in turn, by lofty hill ranges.

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On the whole, the hill fort in Bādāmi seems to be a practical example of Mānasāra's ideal concept of Kharvata fort.

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The Fort in Malkhed (Fig. 55)

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The fort of the period of the mid late Rāṣṭrakūṭas is located on the bank of the river Kāginā and the original part of the fort is polygonal in plan, looking like a shouldered wedge and on all the other sides is a moat. The moat is very wide, almost double the total width of three moats (Fig. 79 and Fig. 80) and bunds in between (i.e. 46 m) as suggested by Kautilya. At close and regular interval on exterior side are rectangular bastions. Within the fort is the citadel part with bulbous bastions (Fig. 83) on the western side of the fort i.e. on the bank of the river. It had a bifurcation wall on the eastern side. Unfortunately owing to the subsequent distructions, additions, alterations and accumulation of debris in great height within the citadel, it is not possible to ascertain the original layout and the position of the buildings etc.

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On the whole it follows more or less the general plan of the fort of Sthala durga (Fig.78) as given by Kautilya.

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The Fort in Basava Kalyāṇa (Fig.44 and Fig.45)

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The fort at Basava Kalyāṇa i.e. enclosure No.II,which is definitely the original and of the period under discussion, is located in a depression not easily visible from a distance, surrounded by a wide moat and provided with semi-circular bastions at regular intervals. The fort is oval shaped in plan. In this case also owing to heavy alterations and additions in the following period, the original layout within the fort of the Kalyāṇa Chālukya period cannot be known.

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The contemporaneous mud fort at Hangal (Fig.55) which is added to the earlier fort i.e. Enclosure No.III is more informative so far as the interior plan is concerned. The extant main streets in all probability are the same as originals and the famous Tārakēśvara temple, which is the most important, is located in the centre of the western part of the fort. On the outside there is another enclosure probably built slightly at later date. It is surrounded by wide moat fed by the river Dharma, Ānekere and Achakere. Thus, Enclosure No.III seems as the citadel surrounded by the supporting communities living in between Enclosures III and IV. The fort consisting of the two enclosures of the period is roughly egg shaped. Being a mud fortification there are no reasonably bastions at regular intervals. The fortified earth work, taken together, in all probability is the longest in this part of the country, running in several kilometres.

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Both the forts i.e. from Basava Kalyāṇa and Hāngal reflect the ideas of Kautilya in his description of Sthaladurga.

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The Fort in Vijayanagara (Hampi) (Fig.58)

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The Vijayanagara fort at Hampi is a combination of the Sthaladurga (Fig.78) and Giridurga (Kharvaṭa) (Fig.88). The plan of the fort in view of the local configuration is therefore irregularly polygonal in plan. Its extent and many enclosures one within the other and the roads (Fig.86) and the location of the important buildings such as temples, (N.S.: 5 km. and E.W.: 10.2 km and next enclosure, N.S.: 11.2 km. E.W.: 14.3 km) readily remind the Rājadhānīya (Fig.91) layout of Mānasāra. The fort walls (Fig.85) of Vijayanagara encompass an area of about 280 square kilometres and measure about 800 km., if all put together. And therefore in the whole of Asia let alone India, excepting the great China wall we hardly come across with such a magnificent work of forti-fying the capital as attempted in Vijayanagara.

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The Fort in Bījāpur (Fig.70)

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The last but not the least is the fort of ‘Ādil Shāhis of Bījāpur. The curtain wall (10.00 m. both wide and high) around the city fort of Bījāpur runs about 10½ kilometres in almost a circular manner, interconnected with high bastions (30 m) and massive watch towers altogether numbering 84, with six main gates together with a deep and wide moat (18-20 m) on the outside. From the citadel almost in the centre of the fort, six roads run in radial way connecting the six city gates in the fag end, which remind partly of the concept of Kharvata (Fig.83) type of fort by Mānasāra. Basically the fort is a Sthaladurga (i.e. ground fort), as it is situated on a plain ground. The dimensions of the architectural members of the fort such as, the wall, the bastions, the wall-walk, the moat etc. are more or less similar to those enunciated by Kautilya.

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What is noteworthy here is that even the builders of the forts for Muslims were in all probability following the principles of Kautilya and Mānasāra in this region. In a way the Muslims in this part of Karnataka too had been greatly impressed by the Hindu ideals regarding construction of forts as enshrined in Kautilya's Arthaśāstra and other allied important works. But for its inception and history, the fort is essentially Indian in layout having little alien idea, though not in architectural features, as a whole.

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Thus we find that there is definitely relationship in varying degrees between actual specimens of forts discussed and the theoretical ideas regarding the construction of the forts, given in detail by these great thinkers of the respective periods. We do not find any striking departure in practice from what has been said in the texts in any of the examples studied. The texts therefore are of immense help in understanding of the selection of the sites, the layout of the forts and their construction in a better way.

Kautilya's Arthaśāstra

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Around the time of Kautilya (C.300 B.C.) was a rather unusual socio-political process at work - the process of formation of Kingdoms and empires. This process needed tremendous energy, planning, foresight and team work. Fortunately, a shrewd political mind rose up to the occasion i.e. Kautilya, who had unparalleled role in shaping the political life of the country. His work, the Arthaśāstra reflects not only his geniusness in formulating the treatise for the time but also a comprehensive and rigorously sustaining spirit in modelling the prosperous strong state. It gives a detailed account of laws, administration etc. as well as defence system and norms for construction of fortifications.

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Now coming to his designs (Figs. 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84 85 and 86) in the construction of forts including minute details such as their material, selection of sites and method of construction, any person intelligent in state craft would but wonder at his extraordinary brilliance beaming in his treatise. Now let us try to glance through some relevant parts of his masterly exposition.

Kinds of Forts

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"In all the four quarters of the boundaries of the empire (Shama Sastry,R. 1956 (Ro.Ed), pp. 52-81) defensive fortification against an enemy in war shall be constructed on grounds naturally best fitted for the purpose, a water fortification (Audhaka) such as an island in the midst of a river, or a plain surrounded by low ground, a mountainous fortification (Parvata) such as a rocky tract or a cave, a desert (Dhānavana), such as a wild tract devoid of water and overgrown with thicket growing in barren soil, or a forest fortification (Vana durga), full of wag-tail (Khājana), water and thickets".

Plan of the Fort

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"Of these, water and mountain fortifications are best suited to defend populous centres and desert and forest fortifications are habitations in wilderness (Atavisthānam) diacritical or having no refuge in times of danger. The king may have his fortified capital (Sthanîya) as the seat of his treasury (Samudāya Sthānam) in the centre of his kingdom: In a locality naturally best fitted for the purpose such as the bank of the confluence of rivers, a deep pool or perennial water or of a lake or a tank, a fort, circular (Fig. 78) rectangular or

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square in form, surrounded with an artificial channel of water and connected with both land and water paths (may be constructed)".

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"Round this fort, three (Fig.79 and Fig.80) ditches with an intermediate space of one *Danda* (=6 ft) from each other, 14, 12, 10 Dandas respectively in width, with depth less by 1/3 or by 1/2 of their width, square at their bottom and 1/3 as wide as at their top, with sides built of stones or bricks, filled with perennial flowing water or with water drawn from some other source and possessing crocodiles and lotus plants shall be constructed".

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"At a distance of 4 *Dandas* (24 ft) from the (inner most) ditch, a rampart (Fig.83), 6 Dandas (36 ft) high and twice as much broad shall be erected by heaping mud upwards and by making a broad street, with two storeyed buildings covered over with a roof and 2½ times as long as it is broad."

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"Between the tower and the broad street, there shall be constructed an *Indrakōsha* (Fig.85), which is made of covering pieces of perforated wooden planks affording seats for 3 arches."

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"There shall also be made a road for goods, which shall measure 2 *Hastas* inside *Indrakōsha* (Fig.85) and 4 times as much by the sides and 8 *Hastas* along the parapet".

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"Paths (Charya to ascend the parapet?) as broad as a *Danda* i.e. 6 ft, or two shall also be made."

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"In an unassailable part of the rampart a passage for flight i.e. <ins>Pradha vitikam</ins> and a door for exit '<ins>Nishkuradwāram</ins>' (Fig. 82) shall be made".

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"Outside the rampart, passage (Fig. 84) for movements shall be closed for forming obstructions such as knee breakers '<ins>Jānubhangani</ins>', a trident mounds of earth pits, wreaths, thorns, instruments made like tail of a snake, palm leaf, dogs teeth, rods, ditches filled with thorns and covered with sand frying pans and water pools, i.e. square at bottom, oval at the centre, pressed by the tramplings of elephants and bulls, and planted with thorney and poisonous plants in bushes. Gaps in the rampart shall be filled with fresh earth.

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Above the rampart, parapets in odd and even numbers and with an intermediate space of from 12 to 24 Hastas from each other shall be built of bricks and raised to a height of twice their breadth.

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The passage for chariots (Fig.86) shall be made of trunks of palm trees or of broad thick slab of stones with spear like the head of monkeys carved on their surface but never of wood as fire finds a happy abode in it.

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Towers square (Fig.85) thought-out and with moveable staircase or ladder equal to its height shall also be constructed.

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In the intermediate space measuring 30 Daṇḍas between two towers, there shall be formed.

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Having made on both sides the ramparts bulge (Fig. 83) out to the extent of a Daṇḍa and a half, an entrance gate to the fort 1/6 as broad as the width of the street shall be fixed.

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A square i.e. 'Chaturashara' is formed by a successive addition of one Daṇḍa upto 8 Daṇḍas commencing from 5, or in the proportion, 1/6 the length upto 1/8.

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The rise in level (Talōtsheda) shall be made by successive addition of one Hasta up/18 Hastas commencing from 15 Hastas.

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In fixing a pillar six parts are to form its height on the floor, twice as much i.e. 12 parts to be entered into the ground, and 1/4 for its capital.

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Of the first floor 5 parts (are to be taken) for the formation of hall i.e. Shala (?) a well, a boundary house 2/10 of it for formation of two platforms opposite to each other (pratimānchau) an upper storey twice as high as its width, carvings of images, an uppermost storey half of or 3/4 as broad as the first floor, side walls built of bricks on the left side, a staircase circumbulating from left to right on the right a secret staircase hidden in the wall, a top supporting of ornamental arches i.e. Toranashirah projecting as far as two Hastas two door panels occupying 3/4 of the space 2 x 2 cross-bars (paraegha) to fasten the door, an iron bolt i.e. Indrakila as long as an aratni (24 Angulas).

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A boundary gate (Anidwaram) 5 Hastas in width, 4 beams to set the doors against the elephants, and turrets (Hastinakha) outside the rampart raised upto the height a face of a man, removeable or irremoveable or made of earth in places devoid of water."

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"A turret above the gate and starting from the top of the parapet shall be constructed, its front resembling an alligator upto 3/4 of height. In the centre of the parapets there shall be constructed a lotus pool, a rectangular building of 4 compartments, one within the other an abode of Goddess Kumari (KumāriPuran), having its external area 1½ times as broad as that of its innermost room, a circular space building with an arched-way and in accordance with available space materials, there shall also be constructed canals (Kulya) to hold weapons, and 3 times as long as broad.

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In those canals there shall be collected stones,spades (Kuddala) axes, (Kuthāri) varieties of staff, cudgels (mushranti) hammers (mudgara), clubs, discs machines (Yantra) and such weapons as can destroy a hundred persons at once (Shataghni), together with spears, tridents, bamboo sticks with pointed edges made of iron, camel-necks, explosives (Agnisamyōga) and water wells can be devised and formed from available materials."

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Buildings within the Fort

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"Demarcation of the ground in side the fort shall be made first by opening three royal roads (Fig. 78) from west to east and three from south to north.

The fort shall contain 12 gates, provided with land and water way and a secret passage (Fig. 78)."

"Charriot roads (Fig. 86) royal roads and roads leading to Drōnamukha, stānīya, country parts and pas^tu^tôre grounds shall each be 4 Dandas in width.

Road leading to sayoniya (?) military station (Vyūhas) burial or cremation grounds and to village shall be 8 Dandas in width.

Roads to gardens, groves and forests shall be four Dandas; roads reading to elephants, forests, shall be 2 Dandas.

Roads for chariots (Fig. 86) shall be 5 arēnis (i.e. 7½ feet).

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Roads cattle shall measure 4 arthis, and roads for minor quadrupeds and men 2 artnis. Royal building shall be constructed on strong grounds.

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In the midst of the houses of the people of all the four castes and to the north from the centre of the ground inside the fort, the king's palace (Fig. 78) facing either the north or the east shall, be constructed occupying 1/9th of the whole site inside the fort.

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Royal teachers, priests, sacrificial place, water reservior and ministers shall occupy sites east by north to the place.

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Royal kitchen, elephants stables (Fig. 78) and the store house shall be situated on sites east by south."

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"On the eastern side, merchants trading scents, garlands, grains, and liquids together with expert artisans and the people of kshatriya caste shall have their habitations (Fig. 78).

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The treasury, the accountant's office and various factories (Karnanishadyascha) shall be situated on sites south by east.

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The store house of forest-produce and arsenal (Āyudha shāla) shall be constructed in sites south by west.

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To the south superintendents of the city, of commerce, of manufacturies, and of the army as well as those who trade in cooked rice, liquor and flesh, besides, prostitutes, musicians, and the people of vaishya caste shall live (Fig. 78).

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To the west by south stables of asse, camels and working horses.

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To the west by north, stables of conveyances and chariots.

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To the west artisans, manufacturing worsted threads, cotton threads, bamboo mats, skins, armours, weapons and gloves, as well as the people of shudra caste shall have their dwellings (Fig. 78).

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To the north by west shops and hospitals; to the north by east the treasury, the stables of cows and horses.

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To the north the royal tutelary deity of the city, iron smiths, artisans working on precious stones, as well as Brahmanas shall resides (Fig. 78)".

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"In the centre of the city, the apartments of Gods (Fig. 78) such as Apalajita, Apratihata, Jayanta Veijayanta, Shiva, Vaishravana, Ashwins (Divine Physician) and the abode of Godess Madira (Madira Griham) shall be situated.

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In the corners, the guardian deities, the ground shall be appropriately set up.

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Likewise, the principal-gates (Fig.78) such as Brahma, Indra, Yama and Sainyapatya shall be constructed, and at a distance of 100 bows (1 Dhanus = 96 Angulas) from the ditch (on the counter scarp side) places of worship and pilgrimage groves, and buildings shall be constructed.

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Guardian deities of all quarters shall also be set up in quarters appropriate to them.

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Either to the north or to the east, burial or cremation grounds shall be situated, but that of the people of highest caste shall be to the south of the city. Violation of this rule shall be punished with first amercement.

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Heretics and Chandālas shall live beyond the burial grounds.

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Families of workmen may in any otherway be provided with sides befitting their occupation and field work. Besides working in flower gardens, fruit gardens, vegetable gardens, and paddy fields, allotted to them, they (families) shall collect grains and merchandise in abundance as authorised".

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"There shall be a water well for every ten houses (Fig. 78).

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Oils, grains, sugar, salt, medicinal articles, dry or fresh vegetables, medow-grass, dried-flesh, haystack, firewood, metals, skins, charcol, tendons, poisons, horns, bamboo, fibrous, garments, strong timbers weapons, armours and stones shall also be stored (in the fort) in such a quantity as can be enjoyed for years together without feeling any want. Of such collection, old things can be replaced by new ones, when received.

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Elephants, cavalry, chariots and infantry shall each be offered with many chiefs, in as much as chiefs, when many are under the fear of betrayal from each other and scarcely liable to the insinuation and intrigues of an enemy.

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The same rule shall hold good with the appointment of boundary guards and repairs of fortifications.

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Never shall Bahirikas who are dangerous to the well being of cities and countries be kept in forts." Thus is a glance through the Arthasāstra. The next milestone is Manusmriti (200 BC - 200 A.D.).

The Manusmriti

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After the Arthasāstra of Kautilya, a noteworthy work on the treatise on the society of his country as a whole, man's relation with his kith and kin, his social behavior and the society, rights and duties, king and kingship, the legal codes etc., is manusmriti. In it chapters No.VII and IX, deal with the forts as an essential requisite for a king.

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Types of Forts

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"Manu knows of several types of castles and also knows of their weakness and strength. They are six types in number. He knows the hill fort in the country then, as the best. He knows fully well of the weapons with which it should be equipped and also knows the way in which it should be protected as also the safety of persons and property therein" (Betai, R.S. 1970, pp. 269-270).

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Purānas (300 A.D. - 800 A.D.)

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The date of Purānas, according to Dr.Hazra, in general ranges between 300 A.D.- 800 A.D., and this has been accepted by most of the scholars. Purānas deal with forts while treating the subject matter of king and his duties. Among the Purānas, the Matsya, the Vāyu, the Mārkandēya and the Vishnu-Dharmōttara provide information about forts. Of the four, the Matsya-Purāna is more informative and the others are the interpretation of the same, and therefore the M<del>M</del><add>m</add>atsya purāne is referred to herein in detail. It enumerates various kinds of forts and in detail gives a list of essential material/and equipment for maintenance of forts as well as mentions the administrative staff and their qualifications also.

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The Matsya Purānam, (Majumdar, B.C. 1940, pp. 226-229) referred to has the subject matter thus. "The king should have his residence in the central place of the fort which should be beautiful with abundance of grass and trees. It should be inhabited by a number of people and where the tributary kings, princes, and subjects are loyal and submissive. It should have some Brahmanas skilled in various rituals and artisans in the vicinity. It should be surrounded by sweet smelling flowers and fruits and should be impassable to the foreigners' army. There should be no tigers, scorpions, snakes, lions and thieves round about it. The place should be beautiful, elevated and well supplied with water."

Types

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Amidst such surroundings, the king should have his fortress. There are six different kinds of forts:

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1) Dhanusa durga, 2) Mahidurga, 3) Naradurga, 4) Vrikshadurgą, 5) Jaladurga and 6) Giridurga. And of these the last named is the best. And in Matsya Purāṇa the following types of forts are also defined:

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1) <ins>Dhanusa durga</ins> : A castle surrounded by a desert.

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2) <ins>Mahidurga :</ins> Earth fort

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3) <ins>Naradurga :</ins> A place of safety formed by placing the army in a particular position.

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4) <ins>Vriksha durga :</ins> A place surrounded densely by trees which make it impassable.

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5) <ins>Jaladurga :</ins> A fort surrounded by water, and

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6) <ins>Giridurga :</ins> A hill fortress

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"The castle should be surrounded by a ditch and ramparts. The buildings are to be in the centre. It should have abundance of weapons like Śataghni and others. Its doors should be beautifully made. Its main entrance should be handsome and big enough to enable the king to pass through it riding on an elephant with his banner streaming. Four roads should be laid out to form squares. There should be a temple in front of one road, the kings mansions in front of the second road. Facing the third one should be houses of judicial and military officers and gateways of the city should be in front of the fourth. In such a way a royal city should be laid out, no matter if it is oblong, square or circular.

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Circular one is the best, or it may be triangular or drum shaped or semi-circular or of other suitable shapes (in the form of military array diamond shaped etc).

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The palace on the banks of a river should be of the shape of a crescent; this is the best. Treasure should be kept in the southern portion of the palace, to the further south of which should be the place for the elephants. The elephantyard should have its door-way to the east or the north. The arsenal should be made south-east. In the same direction should be the kitchen and houses for other works. The house of the royal priest should be to the left side of the king's mansion, where also should be the place for ministers, vedic professors, students, physicians, stable and cow-sheds and store houses. The stables should face north or the south. It is not well, if it faces any other direction. The quarters for grooms, elephant-drivers and charioteers near the stables and the elephant-yards."

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"A large number of people should not be allowed to enter the fortress. There should be various kinds of cannons and weapons as well as those, who use them for the weapons can destroy thousands of people, and thus can protect the king.

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There should be secret doors also, as well as other doors protected by those who killed thousand warriors or are skilled in shooting bows and arrows and throwing various other weapons. A number of bows, tridents, arrows, clubs, spears, swords, sticks maces, big pieces of stones, battle aexe should always be kept ready within the fortress. Shields, skins, ropes, canes, various things of artisanship, husks, loads of straw, woods, coals etc. also should be kept. Tools of all artisans, musical instruments, various kinds of medicines, drums, weapons, various clothings, jems, iron should be kept in jars locked up. Lions, tigers, deers, other birds animals unfriendly to each other should be carefully kept in secret spots and apart from each other. Various kinds of grains, salts, medicines, pungent things, perfumes, drugs, clothes, dancers, singers versed in Kalasāstra. The king should always remain in a well guarded citadel within the fort."

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Mānasāra (450 A.D. - 550 A.D.)

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This work is said to have been compiled by sage Mānasāra. Mānasāra literally means the science of measurements. It contains 7 Adhyāyas and the 7th deals with the ground plan, general design, shape etc. of the villages, towns, cities etc. together with forts. It particularly deals with architecture. To this class of works belong the Mayamata, Vishwakarma Vastu, the Silparatna etc. also.

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"Durga: Lit. 'difficult to go' into, hence a fortified place, a fort, a city. According to Mānasāra, the fortified cities are called forts and they are named as Sibire, Vahinīmukha, Sthaniya, Drōna, Sambiddha, Kōlaka, Nigama and Skandhāvara. For purely military purposes they are again classified as (1) Giridurga (Hill fort), (2) Vanadurga (forest fort), (3) Salila durga (Water fort), (4) Panka durga (clay fort), (5) Rathadurga (Chariot fort), (6) Dēvadurga (divine fort), and (7) Mishra durga (mixed fort)." (Acharya, P.K. pp. 226-229).

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The common features of forts are :

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"Sarvēṣam api durgāṇāṁ
Vaprais cha parīkhair vrittaṁ
Pravēsa Nirgama sthāne dwārair
apı samanvitaṁ

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Iṣṭakādi kritam vapram
hasta dwādashakōchchhrayaṁ
Tadardham Bhitti mau tu
Sancharaih saha vistritaḥ" (M.N.106-109)

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The contents (Ibid., pp. 226-229) of the Chapter 7, when taken together give a good idea of the ancient fortified cities. "They may be circular, square or rectangular. They are surrounded with moats (Parīkha) enclosure wall (Prākāra) and ramparts (Vapra) and are furnished with various entrances, exits and gateways (Pratolī). Circumambulating flight of steps (Pradakshina sōpāna) and secret stair cases in the walls (Gūdha bhitti sōpāna) are constructed. Towers are built on enclosure walls and war like weapons are kept therein. In the interior are constructed tanks, ponds, canals etc. Various kinds of roads are constructed and buildings for different castes and professions are created in the suitable manner."

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The *Mānasāra*, further, in chapter X, in verses from 3 to 91 gives in detail description of palace complex, the the forts for different class of kings, their measurements, eight kinds of fortified cities etc. (Acharya,P.K., PP.226-229) as follows:

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"*3-9*: The breadth of the city of the class of all kinds beginning with Astagrahin, Summarising from the Tantras (Science of architecture). The breadth of the city of kings called Astagrahin should begin with 100 rods and increase by one hundred rods end at 300 rods. Secondly it should begin with 200 rods and end at 400 rods; thirdly it should begin with 300 rods and end at 500 rods. These are from the smallest to the largest and it should finally be extended so as to end 1000 and two hundred rods, each set being of the three varieties (1 Rod = 8' - 1").

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10-13: Similarly the breadth of the city of the <ins>Praharaka</ins> (class of kings) should begin with 400 rods, secondly with 500 rods, thirdly with 600 rods and increasing by 100 rods (finally) and end as before at 1200 rods.

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In this way :

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400 - 100 - 600 rods 500 - 100 - 700 " 600 - 100 - 800 " 700 - 100 - 900 " 800 - 100 - 1000 " 900 - 100 - 1100 " 1000 - 100 - 1200 " "

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Thus there are 21 varieties of breadth of the city of this class of kings.

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Now, different class of kings; which should correspond to the measurements given in the above table, follows thus:

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Class of kings

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1) King
2) Maṇḍaleśa
3) Paṭṭadhara
4) Narendra
5) Mahārāja, and
6) Chakravartin (1000-100-1200 or 1000-10-7000 or end at 10000 rods)

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"**32-35**: The length of the city (fort) should be generally one-and-one-half, one-and-three-fourths or twice of its breadth, otherwise in rod measurements by the smaller increasement of rods it should be made up twice the breadth.

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**39-43**: Types and features of all the cities and others i.e. the fortifications: The eight kinds of fortified cities are named (Ibid: PP. 95-96).

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They are :

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1) Rājadhānīya (royal) Nagara (Fig.91)
2) Kēvala (Ordinary) without royal residence
3) Nagarai
4) Pura
5) Khēta (Fig. 89)
6) Kharvata (Fig.88)
7) Nagara, and
8) Kubjaka and Pattana (Fig. 89)

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And Eight Kinds of forts are called:

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1) Síbira
2) Vāhinī-mukha
3) Sthānīya
4) Drōna
5) Samviddha
6) Kōśala 7) Nigama

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8) Skandhavara. All these beginning with Nagarai may also be called forts for all practical purposes."

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"44-49: A city with king (i.e. royal palece) in the centre and inhabited by numerous wealthy persons (Lit. meritorious) should also preferably be laid out within kingdom on the banks of a river. It is always given by the learned the name of Rajadhani (Capital or metropolis), if there be built a temple of (God) Vishnu' at the entrance or in the centre of it.

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50-52: Having four gates towards the four cordinal points and furnished with Gopuras (towers) dotted over with guard-rooms, equipped with everywhere barracks, full of merchants and encircled with markets crowded with people and filled with temples of various denominations in side and out side, such a place is called a city proper."

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