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India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi c10: Chapter V. Education, Learning and Literature

India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī c10

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English

Contents

Chapter V. Education, Learning and Literature

Section 1. Education

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Pāṇini's grammar was the outcome of a considerable development of language and literature. That linguistic and literary development was in its turn the product of a suitable educational system amply justified by its results. The *Ashṭādhyāyī* throws valuable light on the evolution of different literary forms and types of compositions, educational institutions, students and teachers, methods of instruction, subjects of study, and works then known—a fact of great importance for the literary history of ancient India. Patañjali supplements Pāṇini's information in many ways.

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*STUDENTSHIP*—The educational system was based upon what is known as the ancient system of *Brahmacharya* (*Tadasya brahmacharyam*, V.1.94) which laid more emphasis on life (*charyā*) than mere learning or instruction. It was based upon a constant personal touch between teacher and pupil bound together by a spiritual tie (*vidyā-sambandha*; IV.3.77) living in a common home (*śālā*). The pupil was thus truly the *antevāsī* (IV.3.130) of his *āchārya*. A student was generally called *Brahmachārī* (*Charaṇe Brahmachāriṇi*, VI.3.86). The religious student belonging to the upper three classes of society was known by the special term *varṇī* (V.2.134), a new title unknown in the Saṁhitā and Brāhmaṇa literature. As a pupil, he was called *chhātra* (IV.4.62, *Chhatrādibhyo ṇaḥ*), because his duty (*chhatraṁ śīlamasya*) was to be always at his teacher's service (*guru-kāryeshv-avahitaḥ*) and protect him from harm like an umbrella (*tach-chidrāvaraṇa-pravṛittaḥ*, *Kāśikā*).

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Two classes of pupils are distinguished (1) *daṇḍa-māṇava*, and (2) *antevāsī* (*Na daṇḍamāṇavāntevāsishu*, IV.3.130). The *daṇḍa-māṇava*, also called by the shorter name *māṇava* (VI.2.69) was a novice, not initiated in the Vedic study (*anṛicha*), as observed by Patañjali (*anṛicho māṇave Bahvṛichaścharaṇākhyāyām-iti*, V.4.154; II.444). He was named after his distinctive emblem, a wooden staff which he carried (*daṇḍa-pradhānaḥ māṇavaḥ*, *Kāśikā*). Pāṇini mentions the religious staff of the student as *āshāḍha* (V.1.110), being named after the wood of the *palāśa* tree (*Butea frondosa*) of which it was made. The *Tattvabodhinī*, a late commentary, takes *daṇḍa-māṇavas* to be students without *upanayana*. The *Mataṅga Jātaka* refers to a *māṇava* as being of tender age (*bāla*), moving to and fro with a *daṇḍa* and wearing sandals (*Jāt.* IV.379). A class of such young pupils was called *māṇavya* (IV.2.42).

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Students initiated by teachers of the rank of an *āchārya*, were called *antevāsins*. Pāṇini calls the ceremony of initiation as *āchārya-karaṇa* (I.3.36). This was expressed by the formula *māṇavakam upanayate*. He brings the pupil close to himself as his 'Āchārya'. This is further explained by the *Kāśikā* as *ātmānam āchāryīkurvan-māṇavakam ātmasamīpam prāpayati*, 'converting himself into a teacher he draws close to himself the tender youth as his pupil'. The *antevāsin* was thus the *Brahmachārī* proper, wearing a particular uniform consisting of a deer skin (*ajina*, VI.2.194) and a *kamaṇḍalu* (IV.1.71). Patañjali refers to a student marked by the *kamaṇḍalu* in his hand (*kamaṇḍalu-pāṇi chhātra*, I.347), getting food offered by pious families (I.133, *yājyakulāni gatvā agrāśanādīni labhate*). An *antevāsī Brahmachārin* was considered to be a full-fledged member of his school called *Charaṇa*, and this bond of comradeship applying in common to all fellow-students was expressed by the phrase *sa-brahmachārī* (VI.2.86).

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*THE PUPIL'S DUTIES*—The Brahmachārī was bound to his teacher by a spiritual relationship (*vidyā-sambandha*, IV.3.77), not less real than blood relationship (*yoni-sambandha*). Pāṇini refers to the teacher as *anūchāna*, ‘one who expounds the texts’ (III.2.109), and also *pravachanīya*, ‘one who orally imparts instruction’ (III.4.68, *pravachanīyo guruḥ svādhyāyasya, Kāśikā*); and the pupil as *śuśrūshu*, ‘one who intently listens to the words of his teacher’ (I.3.57; III.2.108). They were always close to each other (*upasthānīya*, III.4.68), the teacher to be served (*upasthānīyaḥ sishyena guruḥ*), and the pupil to be taught (*upasthānīyo' ntevāsī guroḥ, Kāśikā*). Sometimes the father acted as teacher to his son, the pupil being then called *pitur-antevāsī* (VI.3.23). Pāṇini refers to *āchārya-putra* along with *rāja-putra* and *ṛitvik-putra* (VI.2.133), all three standing on the privileges of their fathers. The teacher’s son was for the pupils like the teacher himself (Kātyāyana, *guruvad guru-putra iti yathā*, I.1.56.1; *Bhāshya*, I.133).

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*TEACHERS*—Pāṇini mentions the following classes of teachers: (1) *Āchārya*, (2) *Pravaktā*, (3) *Śrotriya*, and (4) *Adhyāpaka* (II.1.65). The *Āchārya* was of the highest status. By the particular religious ceremony of *upanayana*, he became *āchārya* (*āchārya-karaṇa*, 1.3.36), and the student his *antevāsī*. This was expressed in the language as *māṇavakam upanayate*. The *Atharvaveda* puts it clearly thus: ‘the *āchārya* by drawing the pupil within himself as in a womb, gives him a new birth’ (*āchārya upanayamāno Brahmachāriṇam kṛiṇute garbhamantaḥ*, XI.5.3). The close association of a teacher and his pupil is shown by the practice of naming the pupil after the *āchārya*. This is expressed by Pāṇini in the *sūtra Āchāryopasarjanaś-chāntevāsī* (VI.2.36; VI.2.104), ‘the *antevāsī* is known after his teacher’, e.g. *Āpiśala*, *Pāṇinīya*, the pupils belonging to the schools of Āpiśali and Pāṇini. Such founders of Schools distinguished as *āchāryas*, e.g. Āchārya Sākaṭāyana, Āchārya Pāṇini, represented the highest academic degree and distinction.

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*Pravaktā*: The *pravaktā* appears to be a teacher who was an exponent of the traditional sacred texts, or *prokta* literature, under the general direction of an *āchārya*. The three classes of teachers, *pravaktṛi*, *śrotriya* and *adhyāpaka*, in *sūtra* II.1.65, seem to be mentioned in the order of their precedence in the educational system.

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*Śrotriya*: Pāṇini defines a *śrotriya* teacher as one who could recite the *Chhandas* or Veda (*Śrotriyaṁś-chhando' dhīte*, V.2.84). He specialized in committing to memory the Vedic texts in the various forms of recitations (*pāṭha*), as *saṁhitā*, *pada*, *krama*, *etc.* The literary apparatus for conserving the Vedic texts without change of a syllable or accent had been perfected several centuries before Pāṇini, who mentions students called *kramaka*, who specilized in memorising the *krama* text (IV.2.61), and *padaka*, the *pada* text of the Vedas. Teachers who instructed such pupils were themselves named after the mode of recitation they had mastered (*tad-veda*), e.g. *kramaka*, *padaka*, 'knowers of the *krama* and *pada* texts.'

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*Adhyāpaka*: The *adhyāpaka* (II.1.65) seems to have been a teacher entrusted with the teaching of secular and scientific treatises, whose later designation *upādhyāya* is often mentioned in the *Mahābhāshya*.

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*DISAPPROVED PUPILS*—Several terms express the censure attaching to students who misused their privileges or contravened the rules proper for them, e.g. *tīrtha-dhvāṅksha*, *tīrtha-kāka*, 'fickle as a crow' in changing his teachers and schools too frequently (II.1.41 with *Bhāshya* I.391, *yo gurukulāni gatvā na chiraṁ tishṭhati sa uchyate tīrtha-kāka iti*); *khaṭv-ārūḍha*, 'a pupil who takes to the luxury of a householder by sleeping on a cot', (*Khaṭvā kshepe*, II.1.26).

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In *sūtra* VI.2.69 (*Gotrāntevāsi-māṇava-Brāhmaṇeshu kshepe*) Pāṇini refers to both junior (*māṇava*) and senior (*antevāsī*) students who joined their schools under motives deserving of censure, e.g. *bhikshā-māṇava*, 'a novice attracted to the school for its benefit of free boarding' (*bhikshāṁ lap-* sye' *hamiti māṇavo bhavati*, *Kāśikā*). The *Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa* refers to the *māṇavas* of the Kaṭha-Kālāpa Schools as running after delicacies of food (*svādu-kāmāḥ*) given to laziness (*alasāḥ*), and avoiding due service to the teacher under pretext of study (*Ayodhyākāṇḍa*, 32.18). As instances of elderly students joining the teacher with such malafide motives, Patañjali cites *kambala-Chārāyaṇīyāḥ*, pupils joining the school of *Chārāyaṇa* with an eye on its blankets; *odana-Pāṇinīyāḥ*, pupils joining the school of Pāṇini for its worldly advantages, such as provision of rice; *ghṛita-Rauḍhiyāḥ*, pupils joining the school of Rauḍhi for its provision of butter (*Bhāshya* I.1.73; I.190). To these examples, the *Kāśikā* adds a worse case, *e.g.* *kumārī-Dākshāḥ*, pupils joining the school of Daksha for its access to girls (as co-students).

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In the above examples *Chārāyaṇa* is cited by Kauṭilya as an ancient author of *Arthaśāstra*, and may be identified with the great minister of king Prasenajit of Kosala. Similarly Rauḍhi was a junior contemporary of Pāṇini himself, as shown by the example *Pāṇinīya-Rauḍhīyāḥ*, in which the names are cited in a chronological order (*Kāśikā*, VI.2.36; also *Bhāshya*, IV.1.79; II.233).

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NAMING OF STUDENTS—Students derived their names from three factors, *viz.* (1) name of the subject, or treatise of study (*tadadhīte*); (2) name of the Vedic School (*charaṇa*) to which they belonged; and (3) name of the teacher under whom they were studying, or whose works they studied.

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As examples of (1) Pāṇini mentions *yājñika* (IV.3.129) and *vaiyākaraṇa* (VI.3.7), 'students of the sacrificial ritual and grammar' respectively. Amongst other students taking up special courses, Pāṇini refers to students of *Kratu* or *Soma* sacrifices (IV.2.60), *e.g.* *Āgnishṭomika*, *Vājapeyika* (*Kāśikā*); and to students specialising in the *Anubrāhmaṇa* literature and thence called *Anubrāhmaṇī* (IV.2.62); and others devoted to Vedic recitation such as *Kramakāḥ*, *Padakāḥ* mentioned above (IV.2.61).

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Students were also named after the special seasonal courses which they were pursuing. For example, the books that were taken up for study in the *Vasanta* (spring) season were also known as *Vasanta*, and the student who was reading that treatise or course at the assigned time was classed as *Vāsantika* (*Vasantādibhyash-ṭhak*, IV. 2. 63, *vasanta-sahacharito'yaṁ grantho vasantas-tam adhīte*). We learn from the Smṛitis that the *vasanta* session in colleges was inaugurated on the *Vasanta-pañchamī* day in the month of Māgha, and the course mainly consisted of Vedāṅga texts (*Manu*, IV.98). Courses were similarly offered for the other seasons like *Varshā*, *Śarad*, *Hemanta* and *Śiśira*, and the students of these short term courses were then called *Vārshika*, *Śāradika*, *Haimantika* and *Śaiśirika* (*Gaṇa-pāṭha* to IV.2.63). These seem to be planned on the lines of modern Summer schools.

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NAMING OF VEDIC STUDENTS—Students were called after the names of the Chhandas works then studied in the different recensions or *Śākhās*, in the Vedic schools (*charaṇas*). According to Pāṇini the names of Chhandas works and the Brāhmaṇa texts attached to each *Śākhā* were not used as current except with reference to the students or persons learned in them (*Chhando-Brāhmaṇāni cha tadvishayāṇi*, IV.2.66, under the context *Tadadhīte tadveda*). The grammatical form undergoes a double process. For example, the original teacher (*pratyaksha-kārī*, IV.3.104.1) Kaṭha was the promulgator of a Chhāndasa *Śākhā* text. The relationship between Kaṭha and his work was first expressed by a suffix taught under *Tena proktam* (IV.3.101). To the word thus formed was added a second suffix to denote a student studying that text. In practice the second affix denoting the student was elided (*Proktāl-luk*, IV.2.64), with the result that the name of the *Śākhā* and the name of the Brāhmaṇa work always pointed to the students studying them. This position is emphasized by the fact that the names of Vedic texts could not be used alone except in relation to their students, *e.g.* *Kaṭhāḥ*, the students of the *Kaṭha Śākhā*, promulgated (*prokta*) by the teacher Kaṭha (*Kaṭhena proktam adhīyate*). The word Kaṭha which ordinarily should have been the name of the book was reserved to denote the entire body of those students and teachers who devoted themselves to its study (*adhīyāna*) and attained proficiency therein (*tad-veda*). The Kaṭhas stood for a real school. The same principle of naming held good for hundreds of other Vedic *Śākhās* or Saṁhitās and Brāhmaṇas, which had then become established for long not merely as books, but as institutions with a fellowship of teachers and pupils devoted to their study. This is the main purport of the important *sūtra Chhando-Brāhmaṇāni cha tadvishayāṇi*. The text of a Vedic *Śākhā* would grow into a living institution and spread into offshoots claiming numerous teachers and students within its fold. The original teacher was the nucleus round whom there grew up an appropriate literature of exposition like the *Brāhmaṇas*, to which contributions were made by teachers and pupils of successive generations, expanding their literary heritage. The *Charaṇa* began as an educational institution following a particular *Śākhā* text; in course of time it developed its full literature comprising *Brāhmaṇa*, *Āraṇyaka* and *Upanishad* texts, *Kalpa* or *Śrauta Sūtras* (cf. *Purāṇa-prokteshu Brāhmaṇa-Kalpeshu*, IV.3.105), and later on even its *Dharmasūtra* to which Pāṇini refers in the *sūtra Charaṇebhyo Dharmavat* (IV.2.46). This represented its normal evolution, but there were many subsidiary schools confined to one or more classes of texts, and justifying their activity by even a Sūtra text (*sūtra-charaṇa*). A good number of the names of these Vedic schools, or, which is the same thing, of their students, are preserved in the *Ashṭādhyāyī*, constituting a rich record of the Vedic literature existing before Pāṇini, which will be noticed later.

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Under the third category were scholars studying the newly discovered scientific treatises, and thus known after the names of the teachers who had composed them (IV.2.64).

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For example, Śākaṭāyana and Āpiśali were two great Āchāryas who lived before Pāṇini. They were the founders of different grammatical systems named after them, e.g. *Āpiśala*, the work of Āpiśali, whose students also were called Āpiśalas. Although the mode of indicating the students of such secular works, was grammatically identical with that for the students of Chhandas works, the fact is that such names as Śākaṭāyanīya and Pāṇinīya, as applied to a student, indicated his allegiance to one particular study, rather than to a broad literature such as that of a Vedic school. From the point of view of educational organisation the *Charaṇas* were the larger schools promoting the study of the entire Vedic literature and based on a fellowship of teachers and pupils, as distinguished from the more restricted grammatical schools confined to the study of a particular treatise or branch of learning and functioning independently of the *Charaṇas*.

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*EDUCATION OF WOMEN*—Both Pāṇini and Patañjali refer to women admitted to Vedic study in the *Charaṇas*. The term *jāti* in *sūtra* IV.1.63 (*Jāter-astrī-vishayād-ayopadhāt*) includes the female members of *gotras* and *charaṇas* (*gotraṁ cha charaṇāni cha*, *Bhāshya* II.225). Thus a woman student of the Kaṭha school was called *Kaṭhī*, and of the Ṛigvedic Bahvṛicha school *Bahvṛichī*. It appears that the three principles of naming the male students applied equally to the female students also. For example, Kātyāyana and Patañjali refer to Brāhmaṇa women students studying the grammatical system of Āpiśali and thence called *Āpiśalā Brāhmaṇī* (*Pūrvasūtra nirdeśo vāpiśalam adhīta iti*, IV.1.14, *vār*. 3). Kātyāyana here refers to a rule of a previous writer, in all probability Āpiśali himself. Similarly *Pāṇinīyā Brāhmaṇī* (*Kāśikā* on IV.2.64). Female students were also admitted to the study of Mīmāṁsā, e.g. *Kāśakṛitsnī*, a female student studying the Mīmāṁsā work of Kāśakṛitsni, son of Kāśakṛitsna (*Bhāshya*, 11.206). Pāṇini refers to female students as *Chhātrī* and their hostels *chhātrī-śālā* (VI.2.86). The wife of an *āchārya* is referred to as *āchāryānī* (IV.1.49), but *āchāryā* was the title of female teachers corresponding in status to an *āchārya* (counter-example in the *Kāśikā*). Patañjali refers to the female teacher Audameghyā and her pupils (IV.1.78; II.230). The term *Kaṭhī-vṛindārikā*, the foremost female student of the *Kaṭha Śākhā*, points to the success of women as students of Vedic schools. Patañjali refers to a female student as *adhyetrī* and a female novice as *māṇavikā* (IV.193; II.249).

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SCHOOL REGULATIONS—The *antevāsī* was to lead the life of a regular Brahmacharī in the house of his teacher. Special hostels for female students had also come into existence (*chhātrī-śālā*).

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Pāṇini refers to the working days of the school as *adhyāya* (III.3.122; *adhīyate' sminn-ityadhyāyaḥ*, *Kāśikā*). On this etymology was based the opposite word *anadhyāya* denoting holidays, about which elaborate instructions are given in the *Gṛihya-sūtras*. These rules are anticipated in Pāṇini's *sūtra*, *Adhyāyiny-adeśa-kālāt* (IV.4.71), showing that study was to be suspended outside its time and place. It is significant that Pāṇini should have found it necessary to mention students contravening the proper rules by carrying on their study in unapproved places, on which the *Kāśikā* cites *śmāśānika*, *chātuṣpathika*, 'one who reads in a cremation-ground or a market-place', and on non-working days, *e.g.* *chāturdaśika*, *āmāvāsyika*, *i.e.* studying on *Chaturdaśī* and *Āmāvasyā* days which were set apart for religious purposes like the *Darśa-Paurṇamāsa* and not for study (*Kāśikā* on IV.4.71). The opprobrium implied in these terms lasted only for the time being.

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Students belonging to the same school were called *sabrahmachārins* (*Charaṇe Brahmachāriṇi*, VI.3.86), and those studying under a common teacher *satīrthya* (*Samānatīrthe vāsī*, IV.4.107 and VI.3.87, *Tīrthe ye*; *Kāśikā*, *samānopadhyāya*).

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In schools following varied curricula, some kind of grouping in the form of classes was inevitable. This grouping was of two kinds: firstly, grouping of such students as were studying the same subjects, and secondly forming bigger congregations of such different groups occasionally for some common purpose, provided their subjects of study were allied (*Adhyayanato viprakṛishṭākhyānām*, II.4.5). For example, Pāṇini mentions students of the *Krama-pāṭha* forming the class *Kramakāḥ*, and of the *Pada-pāṭha Padakāḥ* (*Kramādibhyo vun*, IV.2.61). Instruction in *Pada*-recitation immediately preceded that of *Krama-*. The two classes functioned separately in the school-routine, but on special occasions were grouped as a joint class called *Padaka-Kramakam*, a compound name in singular number. For a common social programme like feasting, the teacher would direct the two allied classes to go together, e.g. *Padaka-Kramakam gachchhatu*, i.e. 'Let the *Padaka* and *Kramaka* students go'. The *Kāśikā* cites *Kramaka-Vārttikam*, showing that after completing the *Krama* recitation of the Veda, the students took up *Vṛitti* or grammatical lessons. Patañjali also states that in his time the custom was for students to be trained first in Vedic recitation; the study of grammar therefore must have followed.

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GRADATION OF COURSES—The grouping of classes as shown above points to a system of planned courses. The various categories of students like *māṇava* (the novice), *antevāsī* (the full-fledged Brahmachārī), and *charaka* (the advanced visiting scholar, IV.3.107) and of teachers like *adhyāpaka*, *pravaktā* and *āchārya*, point to different stages in the academic career.

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Pāṇini has noticed the linguistic forms indicative of stages in academic progress. The stages of secular studies were expressed in terms of the particular treatise studied (*Granthāntādhike cha*, VI.3.79), *e.g.* 'studies the science of astrology upto the chapters *Kalā* and *Muhūrta*, *sakalam*, *samuhurtam jyautisham adhīte*; or reads grammar upto the treatise called *Saṅgraha* (*sasaṅgrahaṁ vyākaraṇaṁ adhīte*, *Kāśikā*). The completion of a course is indicated by the term *anta-vachana* (II.1.6), *i.e.* study upto its concluding chapter, for which older examples were, *sāgni adhīte*, 'he completes his studies upto the text called *Agni* (Books V-IX of the *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa* dealing with the Fire ritual); or *seshṭi-paśu-bandham*, upto the text called *Ishṭi* (Books I-II of the *Śatapatha* dealing with the *Ishṭis* or New and Full-Moon sacrifices), and *Paśu-bandha* (Books III-V of the *Śatapatha*, dealing with the Soma sacrifices). Completion of a particular topic of study was called *vṛitta* (VII.2.26, *Neradhyayane vṛittam*); *e.g.*, in reply to the question 'How much has Devadatta read?', it was stated: *Vṛitto guṇo Devadattena*, *Vṛittaṁ pārāyaṇaṁ Devadattena*, 'Devadatta has finished the study of the topic called *guṇa* (*i.e.* strengthening of vowels in grammatical formations); or *pārāyaṇa* (Vedic recitations). Two linguistic forms were current to indicate the progress of studies, either by topics or the prescribed books completed.

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As already stated (IV.2.63), the syllabus for the year was divided according to the seasons. A particular course of study was prescribed for each season, and the studies associated with each were named after it, *e.g.* *Vasanta*, 'Spring Lectures', *Grīshma*, 'Summer School', *Varshā*, 'Monsoon Lectures', *Śarad*, 'Autumn Lectures', *etc.*

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The system of short term courses involving a study of special topics or parts of a subject was also in vogue, as implied in the expression *Tadasya brahmacharyam* (V.1.94). It regulates the names of students according to the period for which they had got themselves admitted *e.g.* *māsika Brahmachārī*, a student for a month; similarly *ardha-māsika*, a student for half a month, and *sāṁvatsarika*, a student for one year (*Kāśikā*). Kātyāyana mentions *mahānāmnika* students, those who restricted themselves to the study of *mahānāmnī* verses (*Mahānāmnyo nāma ṛcho vrataṁ tāsāṁ charyate*, *Bhāshya* II.360); similarly *ādityavratika*, a student of *Ādityavrata*. The Gobhila Gṛihyasūtra refers to these special vows of studentship (III.1.28; III.2.1-9). The *Mahānāmnī* vow was alternatively called *Śakvarī vrata*. According to the *Rauruki Brāhmaṇa*, the *Mahānāmnī* verse was regarded as the highest religious study aimed at by students in that ancient system. The mothers wished their new-born babes: 'O darlings, may ye complete the vow to master the *Śākvarī* verses!'¹

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The completing of study was called *samāpana* (*Samāpanāt-sapurvapadāt*, V.¹.112), *e.g.* *chhandaḥ-samāpanīya*, *vyākaraṇa-samāpanīya*, studentship with the avowed object (*prayojana*) of mastering prosody or grammar.

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PEDAGOGY—The teacher expounding a subject was called *ākhyātā*. Tution in the prescribed religious manner was *upayoga* (*niyama-pūrvakaṁ vidyā-grahaṇam*, *Kāśikā* on I.4.29). According to the commentator learning of secular subjects as dramatic art did not come under the category of *upayoga*, *e.g.* 'takes instruction about drama from an actor' (*naṭasya śṛiṇoti*). The teacher in his capacity of expounding to his pupil the religious texts of *svādhyāya* was called *pravachanīya* (III.4.68, *pravachanīyo guruḥ svādhyāyasya*). This term was also applied to the subject expounded as *pravachanīyo guruṇā svādhyāyaḥ*. This has reference to the teacher mentioned by Pāṇini as *pravaktā* (II.¹.65). Pāṇini refers to another class of teachers called *anūchāna* (III.2.109), who according to Bodhāyana discoursed on the Vedāṅgas (*aṅgādhyāyī anūchānaḥ*, *Bodhāyana Gṛihyasūtra*, I.4).

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Preparations for study with a teacher were called *anupravachanīya* (V.¹.111). A teacher was respectfully approached (*adhīshṭa*) by the father or guardian with request to undertake the instruction of his ward: 'I pray that you be pleased to admit this tender youth to your instruction' (*adhīchchhāmō bhavantaṁ māṇavakaṁ bhavān upanayet*, *Kāśikā* on III. 3. 161). The teacher was named after the period of his instruction (*tam adhīshṭaḥ*, V. 1. 80), *e.g.* *māsiko adhyāpakaḥ*, 'teacher for a month' (*māsam adhīshṭaḥ satkṛitya vyāpāritaḥ*).

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¹ अथ ह रौरुकि ब्राह्मणं भवति । कुमारान् ह वै मातरः पाययमाना आहुः शाक्वरीणां व्रतं पारयिष्णवो भवतेति । गोभिलगृह्यसूत्र, III 2-7-9

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The life of the student was subjected to rigorous discipline. The difficulty of study is referred to in such expressions as *kashṭo' gniḥ*, *kashṭam vyākaraṇam*, *tato'pi kashṭatarāṇi sāmāni*, 'hard to master is the Fire ritual (*Śatapatha*, Bks. VI-IX); so is Grammar; but still more difficult are the *Sāman* songs' (*Kāśikā*, VII. 2. 22).

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It is interesting to read in the *Ashṭādhyāyī* about teachers who were strict relentless disciplinarians (*dāruṇādhyāpaka*, *ghorādhyāpaka*). As against them were teachers described as perfect (*kāshṭhādhyāpaka*) and good (*svādhyāpaka*) (*Pūjanāt pūjitam anudāttaṁ kashṭhādibhyaḥ*, VIII.1.67). Retired teachers were called *prāchārya* and Old Boys *prāntevāsī* (*Bhāshya*, II.2.18; I.416).

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PĀRĀYAṆA (VEDIC RECITATION)—The method of study varied with the nature of its subject. Vedic texts had to be learnt by repetition; the master of such texts was called a *Śrotriya* (V.2.84). Recitation of Vedic texts without attending to meaning was called *pārāyaṇa*; one engaged in such study was called *pārāyaṇika* (*pārāyaṇaṁ vartayati*, V.1.72). Students gifted with strong memory so as to learn the text by heart without effort (*akṛichchhra*) were indicated by such expressions as *adhīyan pārāyaṇam*, 'facile in recitation', *dhārayan Upanishadam*, 'memorising the Upanishad' (*In-dhāryoḥ śatrakṛichchhriṇi*, III.2.130).

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There are several *sūtras* relating to details about recitation. Firstly, there is provision to indicate the number of repetitions (*adhyayana*) required to memorise the text (V.1.58), *e.g.* *pañchaka adhyayana*, reciting (*āvṛitti*) a text five times, repeating its words five times (*Pañcha vāra*), and in five ways (*pañcha rūpa*, *Kāśikā*); similarly *saptaka*, *ashṭaka*, *navaka* referring to higher numbers. Secondly, there were appropriate phrases to express faults in recitation, by way of an individual word pronounced wrongly (*padaṁ mithyā kārayate*), or accents in a faulty manner (*svarādi dushṭam*), and repeating the mistakes (*asakṛit uchchārayati*; *Mithyopapadāt kriño' bhyāse*, I.3.71). Finally, students were tested with reference to the number of mistakes committed in recitation (*Karmādhyayane vṛittam*, IV.4.63-64), *aikānyika*, *i.e.* one who at the time of examination (*parīkshā-kāle*) commits one mistake (*Kāśikā*); similarly *dvaiyanyika*, *traiyanyika*, and so on up to ten. The Sanskrit words for numerals up to ten consist of two syllables. But Pāṇini also teaches the manner of indicating the lapses when the numeral is of more than two syllables (*bahvach*, IV.4.64), *e.g.* *dvādaśānyika*, *trayodaśānyika*, *chaturdaśānyika*, one with 12, 13, or 14 mistakes in recitation. This method of oral teaching and committing texts to memory has amply justified itself by the conservation and transmission of India's sacred learning through the ages before it was stored up by writing in manuscripts. The secret of success of this oral tradition (*śruti*) lies in the faith that sacred words by themselves have a value and should be treasured up in memory as abiding stores of knowledge.

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Strict regulations characterised the *pārāyaṇa* of Vedic texts by *pārāyaṇika* students observing the vow (*pārāyaṇaṁ vartayati*, V.1.72). Naturally a particular mode of recitation was selected at one time, such as *saṁhitā-pārāyaṇa* (*nirbhuja*), *pada-pārāyaṇa* (*pratṛiṇṇa*) and *krama pārāyaṇa*. Each school had carefully computed the extent of its Vedic text for the purpose of *pārāyaṇa*; the *Charaṇavyūha-pariśishṭa* of Śaunaka states the *pārāyaṇa* text of Ṛigveda to comprise 10,580 verses (I.10).

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The student commenced the *pārāyaṇa* with a formal ceremony described in the *Gṛihya* texts of Bodhāyana and others. He slept on a platform (*sthaṇḍila*) as part of his vow, for which he was marked as *sthāṇḍila* (*Sthāṇḍilāch-chhayitari vrate*, IV.2.15). He also observed the vow of silence during *pārāyaṇa*, being then known as *vāchaṁyama* (*vāchi yamo vrate*, III.2.40). He was also to restrain himself in the matter of food, eating sparingly and taking only water, milk or fruits according to his physical endurance, *e.g.* if he took only milk he was spoken of as *payo vratayati* (III.¹.21), 'observes the vow by living only on milk'. Besides the above regulations Mahīdāsa hints at the fact that students often undertook repeated courses of *pārāyaṇa* recitation, and the *Kāśikā* mentions *dvaipārāyaṇikaḥ* as an illustration (IV.1.88). *Pārāyaṇa* could also be observed in later life.

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*INTELLECTUAL APPROACH*—This mechanical method of learning by rote gives only a limited picture of the educational system. Yāska sounds a note of protest against too much emphasis being laid on mere memorising of words as means of learning, and Patañjali compares it to dry fuel thrown in a place where there is no fire to ignite it¹ (*Bhāshya* I.2.). Pāṇini's own work the *Ashṭādhyāyī* was the result of much hard and scientific thinking applied to the study of words and their significance by analytical methods. The *Nirukta* of Yāska and the grammatical works of Śākaṭāyana and Āpiśali were similar products of the scientific mind. The original treatises produced as a result of creative intellectual activity are distinguished by Pāṇini as *upajñāta* and as being different from the commentaries or expositions (*vyākhyāna*) of older texts.

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¹ yadadhītamavijñātaṁ nigadenaiva śabdyate । anagnāviva śushkaidho na tajjvalati karhichit ॥

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Pāṇini uses a number of terms to indicate the various methods employed in learning and education, *e.g.* extempore composition at the spur of the moment (*prakathana*, I.3.32); illuminating interpretation (*bhāsana*, I.3.47); true exposition of knowledge (root *vad* in the sense of *jñāna*, I.3.47, *samyag-avabodha*); presentation of divergent opinions (*vimati*, I.3.47, *vipralāpa*, I.3.50); enunciation of one's doctrines (*pratiśra-* *vaṇa*, VIII.2.99; or *pratijñāna*, e.g. *nityaṁ śabdaṁ saṁgirate*, 'he affirms that word is eternal', I.3.52); seeking after knowledge (*jijñāsate*, I.3.57). All these terms are indicative of *vāda* (debate) and *vivāda* (discussion) as a method of learning and approach to truth. This method of education is amply testified to in the Upanishads and also in Buddhist literature. Again, Pāṇini also refers to judges at the time of disputations (*madhye-kṛitya*, I.4.76), silencing of an opponent (*nivachane-kṛitya*, I.4.76) and restraining him by exposing his views (*nigṛihya anuyoga*, VIII.2.94), the words *nigraha* and *anuyoga* being regular terms of Nyāya dialectics. Forms of language to arrive at the truth by the process of reasoning (*vichāryamāṇānām*, VIII.2.97; *pramāṇena vastu-parīkshaṇam, Kāśikā*), and firmly establishing one's own position (*jñānam, prameya-niśchayaḥ*, I.3.36) are also referred to. The person who came out triumphant in the debate was the recipient of high honours (*sammānana*, I.3.36), and he was from that time regarded as the leading exponent of that subject or school. As an example the *Chāndravṛitti* mentions Pāṇini himself as leading in the science of grammar (*nayate Pāṇinir-vyākaraṇe*, I.4.82). Knowledge transmitted from teacher to pupil benefited by its expansion (*tāyana*, I.3.38) in the process. We know how the treatise of Pāṇini himself was enriched by his brilliant successors Kātyāyana and Patañjali. Sometimes it so happened that founders of schools became known not so much by their own works as by those of their pupils or followers shedding lustre on them. Pāṇini himself mentions the names of Kalāpin and Vaiśampāyana as teachers of this type whose discourses were so fruitful that they gave rise to different schools of thought, all within the domain of the subject-matter of those discourses (*Kalāpi-Vaiśampāyanāntevāsibhyaścha*, IV.3.104; Dr. R. K. Mookerji, *Ancient Hindu Education as Revealed in the Works of Pāṇini, Kātyāyana and Patañjali*).

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*CHARAṆA, THE VEDIC SCHOOL*—*Charaṇa* represents the type of educational institution in which one particular recension or *Śākhā* of the Veda was studied by a group of pupils called after the original founder and organized as a corporate body (*charaṇa-śabdaḥ śākhānimittikaḥ purushesbu vartate*, *Kāśikā*, II.4.3). The various branches of sacred literature were developed under the aegis of the *Charaṇa* organization, *viz.* the Chhandas text which was originally enounced by a *Ṛishi*, its Brāhmaṇa embodying the liturgical, religious, and philosophical doctrines developed in relation to *yajña*, and later on the Kalpa works dealing with systematised sacrificial ritual better known as Śrautasūtra. This elaboration of literary types had gone on in the *Charaṇas* prior to the time of Pāṇini (cf. *sūtras* IV.2.66; IV.3.105). In fact different Vedic *Śākhās* and *Brāhmaṇa* works were considered such an integral constituent of a *Charaṇa* that they were thought of only in terms of the students who studied them and who actually constituted the *Charaṇa*. The *Śākhās* no longer remained mere books, but developed into institutions comprising under their aegis such works as the *Brāhmaṇas*, *Āraṇyakas* and *Śrauta-sūtras*, etc. Pāṇini speaks of a still wider basis, *viz.* the development of a new type of literature represented in the *Dharmasūtras* (*Charaṇebhyo dharmavat*, IV.2.46; *Charaṇād-dharmāmnāyayoḥ*, *Vār.* on IV.3.126). This marked a further stage in the evolution of the *Charaṇa*, and also marked its final phase, because at the time as *Dharma* or Law was introduced in the curricula of a *Charaṇa* many especialised branches of learning were coming into existence independently of and outside the organisation of the Vedic schools. The *Nirukta* of Yāska and the grammar of Pāṇini are examples of this later development. It is not possible to trace their association with one particular Vedic school. In fact we owe to Patañjali the significant statement made with regard to the *Ashṭādhyāyī* that it was not attached to any particular Vedic school, but was claimed by all Vedic schools as their common study:

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सर्ववेदपारिषदं हीदं शास्त्रम् ।
(II.1.58; I.400; VI.3.14; III.146).

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*PARISHAD*—Three varieties of *Parishads* were known to Pāṇini, (1) academic, (2) social and (3) administrative. The first kind of *Parishad* was an academy of specialist scholars within the *Charaṇa* whose function was to fix the *Śākhā* text to be adopted by the *Charaṇa* with special reference to its phonetical and grammatical points. Pāṇini refers to the *Charaṇa-Parishad* in *sūtra* IV.3.123 (*Patrād-hvaryu-parishadaś-cha*) regulating the term *pārishada* to denote something that appertained to a *parishad* (*parishadaḥ idam*). The Āchārya along with his academy (*saparishatka āchārya*) greeted the student on his first admission (यक्षमिव चक्षुषः प्रियो वा भूयासमिति सपरिषदकमाचार्य मभ्येत्य ब्रह्मचारी पठति, *Gobhila Gṛihyasūtra*, III.4.28; *Drāhyāyaṇa Gṛihya.* III.1.25). Charaka records full details of an academic *Parishad* (Vimānasthāna, VIII.19-20). Patañjali mentions *pārishada* as a work which was the product of a Vedic *Charaṇa* (cf. *Sarva-Veda-Pārishadam*, quoted above). Its earlier variant in the *Nirukta* was *Pārshada* which Yāska mentions as works composed in the *Charaṇas* (*pada-prakṛitīni sarva-charaṇānāṁ pārshadāni*, *Nirukta*, I.17). Patañjali also gives the form *pārshada* for Pāṇini's *Pārishada* works of the Sātyamugri and Rāṇāyanīya schools of the *Sāmaveda* (*Bhāshya*, I.22). As Durgāchārya explains, the *Pārshada* works were the *Prātiśākhyas* produced in the *parshad* (=*parishad*) of each *Charaṇa*, and dealing mainly with phonetical and grammatical topics.

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There were two other kinds of *parishads*, viz. social and administrative. The term *pārishadya*, for a member of a *parishad* (*parishadaṁ samavaiti*, IV.4.44) indicates that the *parishad* was a social or a cultural club, something like a *samāja*. The third kind of *Parishad* was an administrative body, as in the expression *parishadadvalo rājā* (V.2.112), 'a king governing with his council of ministers The term *pārishadya*, one eligible (*sādhu*) for membership of a *parishad* (*Parishado ṇyaḥ*, IV.4.101) takes the *parishad* in the sense of an administrative body. The fact remains that originally the *parishad* began as a body of scholars inside the Vedic schools, which influenced and directed their literary activities and helped in the evolution of those schools.

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WORKING OF A *CHARAṆA*—Pāṇini throws light on the activities and constitution of *Charaṇas* with reference to the following points:

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(1) *Name*—As already pointed out, the name of a *Charaṇa* was also the name of the students who constituted it. There were two stages in the formation of these names which may have represented actual stages in the evolution of a *Charaṇa*. First came the founder Ṛishi who gave the *Charaṇa* a text as its basis (IV.3.102). Next, the Vedic text attracted to the school students who sought its study. For example, Ṛishi Tittiri promulgated the *Taittirīya Śākhā*, of which the students were also called *Taittirīyas* (*Tittiriṇā proktam adhīyate*). Grammatically, the term *Taittirīya* in the sense of a text (*Tena proktam*, IV.3.101-102) could not be used by itself; it needed another suffix to indicate its students (*Chhando Brāhmaṇāni cha tad-vishayāṇi*, IV.2.66), but this second suffix did not appear in the formation (*Proktāl luk*, IV.2.64). In practice the word denoting the text did not differ in form from the word denoting its students. It is a curious phenomenon that in forming the names of *Charaṇas*, the first suffix denoting the text (*prokta*) was retained but lost its meaning, whereas the second suffix denoting the students and professors (*adhyeṭṛi-veditṛi*) was dropped but retained its meaning. It may well be that Pāṇini was here summarizing an actual position so as make theory and practice accord with each other. It was the case of an institution deriving its name from the founder, but later signifying the body of scholars and students who belonged to it.

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The names of the *Charaṇas* in the *Ashṭādhyāyī* and its *Gaṇā-pāṭha* are shown later.

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(2) *Rise (Udaya) and Expansion (Pratishṭhā)*—A *Charaṇa* was not necessarily bound to a place. For instance, the Kaṭha and Kālāpa *Charaṇas* spread from village to village by their popularity, as Patañjali informs us (*Grāme grāme Kāṭhakaṁ Kālāpakaṁ cha prochyate*, IV.3.101; II.315). Pāṇini mentions that the compound names of *Charaṇas* were used in singular when *anuvāda*, ‘restatement’, was implied (*Anuvāde Charaṇānām*, II.4.3). The *Kāśikā* says that *anuvāda* is repetition of an already well-known fact (*pramāṇāntrāvagatasẏārthasya śabdena saṁkīrtana-mātram anuvādaḥ*). Kātyāyana explains that the linguistic forms intended by Pāṇini anticipated only the roots *sthā* and *iṇ* in past tense. For this Patañjali cites the forms *udagāt* and *pratyashṭhāt*, referring to the rise (*udaya*) and expansion, (*Pratishṭhā*) of two *Charaṇas* jointly, like Kaṭha-Kālāpa, Kaṭha-Kauthuma, Mauda-Paippalāda (*Bhāshya*, II.4.3; I.474). A person who already knows the fact of the spread of these schools remarks in the course of conversation, ‘The Kaṭha-Kālāpa *Charaṇas* have made such progress and have established themselves so well’. This statement was of the nature of an *anuvāda*, i.e. restating what was already a known fact about the popularity of these two schools. The Vedic schools were expanding both geograpically and in their scholarly activities, or subjects of learning included within their fold, which is the background of the present *sūtra*.

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(3) *Anuvāda* (*Literary Collaboration*)—This term *anuvāda* is different from the term discussed above. The *sūtra* *Anorakarmakāt* (I.3.49) contemplates some kind of literary collaboration in the matter of recitation amongst different Vedic schools; *e.g.* *anuvadate Kaṭhaḥ Kālāpasya*, *anuvadate Maudaḥ Paippalādasya*, i.e. the Kaṭha school follows the method of the Kālāpa school in recitation (*yathā Kālāpo’dhīyāno vadati tathā Kaṭhaḥ, Kāśikā*). The Kaṭha and Kālāpa were related to the *Kṛishṇa Yajurveda* and the Mauda and Paippalāda to the *Atharvaveda*. This example points to intellectual co-operation between different *Charaṇas* of the same Veda. Pāṇini names some *Charaṇas* as forming a collective unit, *e.g.*

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*Kaṭha-Kālāpāḥ, Kaṭha-Kauthumāḥ, Kauthuma-Laugākshāḥ Mauda-Paippalādāḥ* (*Kārta-Kaujapādayaścha*, VI.2.37). Such union of *Charaṇas* must have been due to their cultural affinity, or geographical proximity.

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(4) *Enrolment*—The *Charaṇas* were open to admission of students, which Pāṇini mentions as *tad aveta*, 'gets admitted to it' (V.1.134), *e.g.* *Kāṭhikām avetaḥ*, 'has become a member of the Kaṭha *Charaṇa*', or as the *Kāśikā* explains it 'obtained the fellowship of the Kaṭha school' (*Kaṭhatvaṁ prāptaḥ*).

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The Kaṭha *Charaṇa* as a corporate body (*Charaṇa-samūha*), was called *Kāṭhaka*, 'the corporation of the Kaṭha scholars' (*Kaṭhānāṁ samūhaḥ, Charaṇebhyo dharmavat*, IV.2.46).

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(5) *Fellowship*—Fellow students belonging to the same *Charaṇa* as their *alma mater* were called *sa-Brahmachārins* (*Charaṇe Brahmachāriṇi*, VI.3.86). Academic fellowship had a social significance. Yājñavalkya refers to the custom of entering the name of a person's *Charaṇa* in legal documents. Patañjali has the following query: '*Kiṁ-sabrahmachārī tvam?*', 'From which School are you?', implying that a student was known by the school from which he graduated and also in association with other fellows of the same school. This query, he says, may be put in three possible ways: (1) Who were fellows of the same school? (*ke sabrahmachāriṇaḥ*); (2) Whose fellow-student are you? (*keshāṁ sabrahmachārī*); (3) Who was your fellow-student? (*kaḥ sabrahmachārī tava*, II.2.24; I.425). These queries bring out the relative academic distinctions of students in life.

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(6) *Women Students*—*Sūtra* IV.1.63 (*Jāte-rastrī-vishayād-ayopadhāt*) as interpreted by Patañjali shows that a woman could be a member of intellectual fellowships like *Charaṇas* which were socially assuming the status of *jāti* or caste (*Charaṇa* as *jāti* is admitted in *gotraṁ cha charaṇaiḥ saha*). The term *Kaṭhī*, for instance, denoted a female member of the Kaṭha school, an individual regarded as foremost of her class being called *Kaṭha-vṛndārikā*, and another deserving of special distinction as *pūjyamāna-Kaṭhī* (II.1.62). The term *Kaṭha-māninī* points to proud honour felt owing to academic lineage as a *Kaṭhī*. *Kaṭhajātīya* and *Kaṭhadeśīya*, understood in the light of Pāṇini V.3.67 (*Īshadasamāptau etc.*) were applied to those who were not full-fledged members of the Kaṭha School, i.e. not endowed with the learning born of academic life therewith but belonging to the fellowship (*jāti*) or the region (*deśa*) of the Kaṭhas.

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(7) *Social Honour*—Membership of a *Charaṇa* carried with it social honour and dignity, of which probably some were not slow to take advantage by assuming superior airs against other persons not possessing that distinction. Pāṇini hints at this sense of pride in the term *ślāghā*, *e.g.* *Kāṭhikayā ślāghate*, 'he glorifies himself in vanity as a Kaṭha.' At times such vanity would result in the disparaging of others, which Pāṇini refers to as *atyākāra*, *e.g.* *Kāṭhikayā atyākurute*, 'being puffed up as a Kaṭha he looks down upon others', (*Gotra-charaṇāch-chlāghātyākāra-tadaveteshu*, V.1.134).

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(8) *Intellectual Ideal*—The *Charaṇas* were the custodians of the cultural traditions created by generations of their students and teachers. These traditions were recorded in their literature built up through the ages. We have seen how Pāṇini is acquainted with the various types of literature as the output of the *Charaṇas*, *viz.* (1) the Vedic Śākhā texts, (2) Brāhmaṇa works, (3) Kalpa works, (4) the Dharma-sūtras (*Charaṇebhyo dharmavat*, IV.2.46). With the development of the *Dharma-sūtra* or legal literature there set in a process of gradual separation between the secular and scientific studies on the one hand and religious and ritualistic on the other. The *Ashṭādhyāyī* itself is an example of this process at work, which introduced new subjects of study besides those traditionally comprised within the *Charaṇas*. For instance, the *parishads* of the Vedic *Charaṇas* themselves took the lead in promoting such studies, as phonetics, linguistics, grammar, and the like, which later on became independent of Vedic studies and were cultivated in their own schools. The *Pārshada* work of each Vedic school concerned itself with linguistic and grammatical questions which gave scope to the rapid growth of these studies. It is to be remembered that whereas an individual *Charaṇa* specialised in its own text or *Śākhā* of the Veda, and developed its related Brāhmaṇa and Sūtra, the different *Charanas* of the same Veda possessed in common their *Pārishada* work or *Prātiśākhya*, conceived as belonging to all the offshoots or branches (*śākhās*) of the same Vedic tree (*Śākhādibhyo yaḥ*, V.3.103; *Śākheva śākhyaḥ*).¹

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¹ वृक्षादीनां शाखेवास्य वेदकल्पतरो ऽ वयवाः शाखाः । शास्त्रं शास्त्रं प्रतीति प्रातिशाख्यम् । दधिकृत्य कृतं प्रातिशाख्यम् ।

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(9) *The Charaṇa as a Saṅgha*—The *Charaṇas* were organized as autonomous bodies making their own rules and regulations as an expression of the democratic ideal in the sphere of learning and education and adopting the method and procedure of the *Saṅghas* in their management. Pāṇini cites the specific instance of the *saṅgha* of students studying the Vedic text of the teacher *Śākala*, and thence called Śākala or Śākalaka (*Śākalād-vā*, IV.3.128; *Śākalena proktam adhīyate Śākalāḥ*; *teshāṁ saṅghaḥ*). It is obvious that the Śākalas, as also other *Charaṇas*, possessed an individual entity for social, economic or organised life in particular. This is illustrated by the fact that the name *Śākala* was also applied to the legend (*aṅka*) and the emblem or heraldic symbol (*lakshaṇa*) adopted by the School on their reals and documents; the same word also denoted their separate settlement or campus (*ghosha*).²

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² *Sūtra* IV.3.128 (*Śākalād-vā*) as interpreted in the light of IV.3.127 (*Saṅghāṅka-lakshaṇeshv-añ-yañ-iñām aṇ*); cf. the examples in *Kāśikā*, *Śākalaḥ aṅkaḥ*, *Śākalaṁ lakshaṇam*, *Śākalaḥ ghoshaḥ*; similarly *Śākalakaḥ* (Cf. K. P. Jayaswal, *Hindu Polity*, (1924), I.42).

Section 2. Learning

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AGENCIES OF LEARNING—The various agencies in the spread of learning comprised (1) teachers, (2) authors, (3) regular students, (4) travelling scholars (*charakas*), (5) educational institutions, (6) learned assemblies and conferences, (7) discourses, (8) expositions and (9) literature. The cumulative work of these agencies resulted in a nation-wide expansion of education and learning.

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*IDEALS.* The ideals of learning must have played an important part in the moulding of educational activities. Both the teacher and the taught (*āchāryāntevāsinaḥ*) were inspired by the literary and cultural ideals of their age. We get from Pāṇini a graphic picture of the types of literature then developed, *viz.* Chhandas and Brāhmaṇa works, Vedāṅga literature like Kalpa and Vyākaraṇa, secular works and poetry, dramaturgical treatises and stories (IV.3.110-111), *gāthās* and *ślokas* (III.2.23). Students would prepare themselves for the study of one or other of these different classes of literature (*tadadhīte*). In the sphere of teaching, there were different classes of teachers dealing with the several classes of literature, *e.g.* *āchārya* for the esoteric knowledge of the Veda, *śrotriya* for recitation, *pravaktā* for *prokta* literature, *ākhyātā* imparting religious teaching, *anūchāna* for the Vedāṅgas, and *adhyāpaka* carrying on general teaching work. But from the point of view of scholarly attainments a large number of specialists in each branch of learning were coming into existence. In fact from Pāṇini's account of specialist scholars we learn that each text or subject of knowledge was represented by the learned men who had mastered it (*tadveda*, IV.2.59). For example, there is mention of experts in the various Soma sacrifices (*kratus*), named after the particular ritual which they had mastered, as *āgnishṭomika*, *vājapeyika* (IV.2.60); the reciters of *uktha* and the various forms of orthoëpic recitations of Chhandas texts, as the *krama-pāṭha* and *pada-pāṭha* (IV.2. 61); exponents of the Brāhmaṇa and Anubrāhamaṇa works (IV.2.62), and Sūtra works (IV.2.65) dealing with the several classes of scientific literature. The Vedāṅga literature was represented by its specialists, such as *vaiyākaraṇa*, (grammarians), (VI.3.7), *nairuktika*, (etymologists), and *yājñika*, (experts in Kalpa or ritual) (IV.3.129). Patañjali's elaborate list of works in the *vārttikas* appended to *sūtra* IV.2.60, shows the tendency towards specialization carried to extremes in his time, mention being made of experts in ornithology (*vāyasa-vidyā*), bodily signs (*aṅga-vidyā*), knowledge of cows (*go-lakshaṇa*), horses (*aśva-lakshaṇa*), military science (*kshattra-vidyā*). Multiplication of works had advanced and each is spoken of in terms of its exponent. Even the story literature had its devotees, *e.g.* *Yāvakrītika* (adept in the story of Yavakrīta, (related in the Vanaparva, Chs. 133-38, *A.B.O.R.I.*, XXI.282); *Yāyātika* (proficient in the legend of Yayāti, cf. examples on VI.2.103), *Vāsavadattika* (well-versed in the romance of Vāsavadattā), and *Saumanottarika* (a special student of the romance of Sumananottṛā, related at length in Buddhist literature (*Dict. of Pāli Proper Names*, I.361). Pāṇini himself refers to special works dealing with *ākhyāna* material (VI.2.103).

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*CHARAKA*—The peripatetic scholar was called *charaka*, as distinct from the *māṇava* and *antevāsin* who were attached to their schools (V.1.11, *Māṇava-charakābhyāṁ khañ*). Vaiśampāyana was called a *charaka*, obviously on the basis of his literary activities from place to place; his pupils following in his footsteps were also known as *charakas*. The *charakas* were like post-graduate scholars who after finishing their studies sought higher knowledge by travelling. The expression *chārikaṁ charantā* is applied in the *Jātakas* to advanced students of the Takshaśilā university, who after reaching the end of their studies travelled to train themselves in the direct knowledge of country observances (*Sonaka Jātaka*, V. 247). In the *Bṛihad. Up.* we find Bhujyu Lāhyāyani mentioning to Yājñavalkya his wanderings in the Madra country as a *charaka* (*Madreshu charakāḥ paryavrajāma*, III.3.1). Yuan Chwang mentions about Pāṇini himself that he travelled widely in search of linguistic material, interrogating learned men in different localities.

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