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India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi c7: Chapter II. Geographical Data

India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī c7

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Contents

Chapter II. Geographical Data

Section 1. Introductory

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The most important contribution of the *Ashṭādhyāyī* to the history of ancient India is its geographical information. The country, its mountains and ocean, forests and rivers, natural and territorial divisions (*janapadas*), towns and villages receive their full share of attention in the linguistic material dealt with by Pāṇini. It is here that the grammarian can be credited with having created his material in a very real sense by undertaking an original survey of the place-names in the vast area of the country stretching from Kamboja (Pamir region) and Kāpiśī (Begrām in Afghanistan) to Kaliṅga (Orissa) and Sūramasa (Sūrmā Valley in Assam). The question may be asked as to the *raison d'etre* of the rich geographical information that a work proclaimed to deal with grammar contains.

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The answer to this may be understood in this way. Place-names form an integral part of language which it is the object of grammar to discuss and regulate. The analysis which Pāṇini has given of the underlying meanings which relate names of places to social life and background, shows conclusively that such names do not originate by mere accident, but are the outcome of social and historical conditions with which a people are intimately connected. These conditions are reflected in language in the geographical names. An etymological approach to the place-names of a country reveals to us many a forgotten chapter of history and settlement on land, and the contribution that Pāṇini makes in this respect through his grammatical expositions possesses abiding historical value. He has given a list of endings of place-names by which geographical places are classified. Most of the names of the geographical places originate, as he points out, from one or the other of the following factors:

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(1) 'this object is found in a particular place;'
(2) 'the place was founded (*nirvṛitta*) by such and such a person;
(3) 'the place was the abode (*nivāsa*) of such a person, or a community;' and
(4) 'the place is located in proximity (*adūrabhava*) to a known object.'

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It will thus appear that places are here distinguished for their founders, their economic products, their historical associations and their proximity to monuments. These four descriptions are termed *Chāturarthika*, 'suffixes with four-fold meaning'.

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Pāṇini also instances places which have lent their names to persons as the places of their own residence (*nivāsa*), such as *Māthura*, or of their ancestors (*abhijana*, IV.3.90), such as *Saindhava*, 'one whose ancestors lived in Sindhu'. Besides persons, commodities may also be associated with places as their origin, e.g., the wine (*phalaja-madhu*) known as *Kāpiśāyana* which was known after the place of its origin called Kāpiśī (IV.2.99). Animals also were called sometimes after the places of their origin, e.g., *Rāṅkava* or *Rāṅkavāyaṇa*, a bull bred in the Raṅku country (IV.2.100); or *Kāchchha*, a bull of Kachchha country (IV.2.134). There may also be other associations of names with places under the general rule stated in the *sūtras* IV.2.92145 (*Śaishika*), e.g., *Kāśika*, 'the cloth woven at Kāśī' (IV.2.116). An assemblage of meanings can be seen in *Kāchchhaka* which used to denote (a) an inhabitant of Kachchha, (b) the turban (*chūḍā*) peculiar to its poeple, (c) their mannerisms in speech (*jalpita*) and laughing (*hasita*). The term *Saindhava* is also cited under this rule with reference to the above peculiarities of its people.

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Another class of geographical names is that of regions or provinces (*vishaya*, IV.2.52-54), called after their peoples, e.g., *Śaiba*, the region of the Śibis; *Āprītaka*, the region of the Āprītas (=Afridis); *Mālavaka*, the region of the Mālava people. Similarly, *Rājanyaka* (of the Rājanya tribe), *Traigartaka* (Kangra), *Vāsātika* (of the *Vasātis* or the Ossadioi, Sibi in Baluchistan), *Vairāṭaka* (Bairāṭ in Jaipur), *Audumbaraka*, and so forth. The names according to *vishaya* seem to be based on the ethnic distribution of population over particular areas for the time being without reference to the form of government.

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Places were also named after the nature of their polity. Thus Pāṇini divides *janapadas* into two classes, firstly *janapadas* under monarchy (*Ekarāja*) enumerated in *sūtras* IV.1.168-176; and secondly *janapadas* as republics (*Saṅgha*), such as Vāhīka where flourished the Āyudhajīvī Saṅghas (Military Republics).

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The suffixes applied to these names point to the types of government (*Tadrāja*) associated with their names.

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This in short illustrates Pāṇini's scientific classification of place-names on the basis of the principles underlying their formation.

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Names of rivers, forests and mountains are noticed not in connection with any social or historical significance, but as examples of linguistic peculiarity, such as vowel-lengthening (VI.3.117-120) or cerebralisation (VIII.4.4-5).

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Kātyāyana and Patañjali following Pāṇini add more examples to his. For instance, under Sālvāvayava (IV.1.173) Patañjali mentions the names of the states belonging to the Sālva Janapada (*Bhāshya*, II.269); under *sūtra* IV.1.172 illustrating names of countries beginning with the letter *n*, Nichaka and Nīpa (II.269); and under the Rājanya *gaṇa*, Vasāti, Devayāta, Bailvavana, Ambarīshaputra and Ātmakāmeya, which probably go back to Pāṇini himself (IV.2.52; II.282).

Section 2. Country

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*GEOGRAPHICAL HORIZON*—Pāṇini knew of a wider geographical horizon. The extent of the country known to him is indicated by several landmarks mentioned in the *sūtras*. The western-most point is Prakaṇva corresponding to the term *Pari-kanioi* mentioned by Herodotus and to the modern country of Ferghana. It may be noted that Pāṇini names Ṛishi Praskaṇva in *sūtra* VI.1.153 and from this name is derived as a counter-example, as given by the *Kāśikā*, the name of the country called Prakaṇva. To the south of Ferghana lay Kamboja (IV.1.175), which as will be shown later may be identified with the region of Badakshan-Pamir. South of it lay Kāpiśī (IV.2.99), capital of the kingdom of Kāpiśa, which may be identified with modern Kafiristan, south-east of the Hindukush. South of Kāpiśī was situated Gandhāra (IV.1.169) comprising the valley of the Kabul river, with its frontier outpost at Takshaśilā (IV.3.93).

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There are also mentioned from west to east *janapadas*, of (1) Madra (IV.2.131), (2) Uśīnara (IV.2.118), (3) Kuru (IV.1.172), (4) Bharata, called also Prāchya-Bharata as the dividing line between north (Udīchya) and east (Prāchya) (IV.2.113).

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Eastern India is known by its divisions called (1) Kosala (IV.1.171) (2) Kāśi (V.2.116) (3) Magadha (IV.1.170) (4) Kaliṅga (IV.1.170) and Sūramasa (IV.1.170).

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On the west side the country of Kachchha is mentioned (IV.2.133), and also the islands of the adjoining sea (*anu-samudra dvīpa*, IV.3.10).

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Further up, modern Sind is mentioned under the name of Sauvīra. Pāṇini had a direct knowledge of the country as he shows acquaintance with its social life (formation of its *gotra*-names) as will be explained later.

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The southern limit of his horizon is indicated by the mention of Aśmaka (IV.1.173) of which the capital as known from other sources was Pratishṭhāna, modern Paiṭhaṇ on the Godāvarī.

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*DIVISIONS OF THE COUNTRY*—Udīchya and Prāchya are the two broad divisions of the country mentioned by Pāṇini, and these terms occur in connection with the linguistic forms known to the eastern and northern grammarians. The Udīchya country included Gandhāra and Vāhīka, the latter comprising Madra and Uśīnara, and possibly Trigarta also. The Kuru region in the south-east of the Punjab was contiguous with the Bharata *janapada*. The Bharata region separated the east from the west, as shown by Pāṇini’s reference to Prāchya-Bharata, on which Patañjali remarks that the proper Prāchya country lies outside the sphere of the Bharatas (II.4.66; I.493, *anyatra prāg-grahaṇe Bharata-grahaṇaṁ no bhavati*). The river Śarāvatī mentioned in Pāṇini (VI.3.120) formed according to commentators the boundary between the two divisions of Udīchya and Prāchya. It may probably be identified with the Dṛishadvatī or Chitāṅg flowing through Ambala district.

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Both Udīchya and Prāchya were taken as the home (*Lōka*) of standard Sanskrit both in Pāṇini’s time and earlier. In the time of Patañjali, however, this became contracted to Āryāvarta as the home of the *śishṭas* (persons proficint in the *śāstras*) whose language set its norm.

Section 3. Mountains, Rivers and Forests

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Pāṇini shows knowledge of the mountainous regions called Himālaya, with its perpetual snow (*himānī*, IV.1.49), its melting (*hima-śratha*, IV.4.29), uplands (*adhityakā*) and lowlands (*upatyakā*, V.2.34). In this connection the expressions Antargiri and Upagiri (with variant forms Antargiram and Upagiram, according to the opinion of *āchārya* Senaka, V.4.112) are especially noteworthy as proper names also known to the *Mahābhārata*, the former signifying Himālaya proper (Antargiri—'Heart of Himālaya'), same as Pāli Mahāhimavant or the Great Central Himālaya including its highest peaks, such as Gaurīśaṅkara, Nandādevī, Kedāranātha, etc., and the latter the sub-Himālayan region of low-lying peaks (Pāli Chulla-Himavant). The *Mahābhārata* also adds Bahirgiri, signifying the outlying region of the Tarāi (Sabhā., 27.3).

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Pāṇini mentions some particular hills: (1) Tri-kakut (V.4.147) so-called from its three peaks, a name first used in the *Atharvaveda* as the source of a salve (*añjana*), which may be identified with the Sulaiman mountain, famous as the source of antimony all over the Punjab and Sind (probably same as Sauvīrāñjana; cf. *Vedic Index*, I.329); (2) Vidūra (IV.3.84) as the source of the precious stone called *vaidūrya*, cat's eye, which according to Patañjali was quarried at Vālavāya and treated by the lapidaries in Vidūra, probably Bidar (cf. Pargiter, *Mārk.*, p. 365, for Vaidūrya as Satpura); (3) Kiṁśulakā-giri (VI.3.117), to which the *Gaṇapāṭha* adds five more names, viz., Śālvakāgiri, Añjanāgiri Bhañjanāgiri Lohitāgiri, Kukkuṭāgiri.

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These six names seem to be taken from some *Bhuvaṅkosha* list, giving in order the ranges on the western frontiers from Afghanistan to Baluchistan.

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Starting from below, Śālvakāgiri is phonetically the name of Hālā Range lying north-south between Sind and Baluchistan. To the west of it is the Makran chain of hills, the home of the Hiṅgulā river and Hiṅgulāja goddess. Hiṅgulā seems to be the Prakrit form of Kiṁśulakā. It was also called by its synonymous name, the Pārada country, Pardene of classical writers, corresponding to *Pārdāyana* of Patañjali (IV.2.99). Goddess Hiṅgulā of this place is of vermilion colour, also called Dadhiparṇī, because of its association with the ancient Scythian tribes of Dahae and Parnians. It was worshipped also as Nānī, or Nanā of antiquity.

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The next great range is that of Sulaiman mountains which as the source of a famous salve was rightly celebrated as Añjanāgiri. With the other two ranges of Ṭobā Kākaṛ and Shingar to the west of it, Sulaiman with its triple chain was rightly called Trikakut which seems to have been its Vedic name (*Atharva.*, IV.9.8), also recorded by Pāṇini (V.4.147).

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The next step lands us into Afghanistan. Here we have two conspicuous mountainous ranges, *viz.*, one in the northeast of Kabul called Hindukush and the other to the south-west of Kabul called Koh-i-Bābā. The old name of Hindukush was Lohitāgiri (cf. *Kāśikā* on IV.3.91 where the military highlanders of Rohitagiri are referred), from which Afghanistan in medieval geography was called Roha (*Ling. Survey of India*, X, p.5). In the route of Arjuna's conquest we read of Lohita with its ten tribes after Kashmir (Sabhā., 27.17). This can apply only to Hindukush and its martial tribes occupying the valleys of Kohistan-Kafiristan.

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Sandwitched between the Sulaiman (Trikakut) and the Hindukush (Rohitagiri) we find a little to the west the Koh-i-Bābā range which acts as the central watershed for the dispersal of waters to the south, west, north and east. A glance at the map of Afghanistan points to it most probably as being the Bhañjanā-giri.

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The last name Kukkuṭā-giri seems to represent the comparatively low peaks in the west of Afghanistan towards Herat which in Iranian geograhy were called *Uparisaena*, "The Falcon's Perch", and by the classical writers Paropamisus, with special reference to their low height.

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In *sūtra* IV.3.91 Pāṇini mentions peoples who lived by the profession of arms and were settled in hilly regions (*Āyudha-jīvibhyaśchhaḥ parvate*). Hṛidgola, Andhakavarta and Rohitagiri are mentioned as names of particular hills occupied by these military Highlanders. The mention of Rohitgiri suggests their identification with the mountainous tracts in Afghanistan known as Rōha, the Tribal Area which is still the recruiting ground of good soldiery. In the *Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa* the home of the Highlanders (*Parvatāśrayiṇaḥ*, 57.56) is placed in the region of Nihāra or Jalalabad (for which the *Vāyu* gives the true reading Nagarahāra; Pargiter, *Mar. P.*, p. 345). It may be added that Patañjali gives several new names of mountain-dwellers, of which Mālāvāt (II.287) is noteworthy as corresponding to Malākand, the mountainous district north of Dargai, the home of the Dārgalas in the country south of the Swat river.

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*FORESTS*—Several names of forests are mentioned in *sūtras* VIII.4.4-5. Of these the five names enumerated in the first *sūtra* occur also in the *Kōṭarādi gaṇa* giving a list of forest names (VI.3.117). Of these the Puragāvaṇa seems to be connected with Pāṭaliputra as the *Gaṇaratnamahōdadhi* associates the Yakshī Puragā with Pāṭaliputra (verse 291). Miśrakāvaṇa appears to be the name of the well-known forest of Misrikh in Sitapur district. The Pāli literature, however, makes Missaka a mythical forest of the Tāvatiṁsa heaven (*Jātaka*, VI.278; *Dict. Pāli Proper Names*). The other names, *i.e.* Sidhrakā-, Sārikā-, Koṭarā- and Agrevaṇa are unidentified. Similarly names like Śaravaṇa, Ikshuvaṇa, Plakshavaṇa, Āmravaṇa, Kārshya-vaṇa, Khadiravaṇa and Piyūkshābaṇa included in *sūtra* VIII.4.5 cannot be definitely identified since Pāṇini takes them both as proper and common names. Some of these proper names are known in Pāli works; they may not have been big forests but mere groves of trees situated in the vicinity of big towns. For example, Khadiravaṇa occurs in the *Aṅguttara Nikāya* as the birth-place of the teacher Revata who was the foremost of the forest recluses and called Khadiravaṇīya after the place of his birth. Similarly Śaravaṇa is said to have been a settlement in the neighbourhood of Śrāvastī, where another great teacher Gosāla Maṅkhaliputta was born. Āmravaṇa is said to have been attached to the city of Rājagṛiha, and also Kāmpilya.

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Forests of herbs and big trees (*Vibhāshaushadhi-vanaspati-bhyaḥ*, VII.4.6) and those reserved for the grazing of cattle (*goshpada*, VI.1.145; *āśītaṁ-gavīna araṇya*, V.4.7) are also mentioned.

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*RIVERS*—On the north-west frontier Pāṇini mentions the river Suvāstu (IV.2.77; Swat). This river with its tributary the Gaurī (mod. Panjkora) flowed through Gandhāra of which the upper part was known as Uḍḍiyāna, famous for its blankets called *pāṇḍu-kambala*, mentioned by Pāṇini (IV.2.11). The western capital of Gandhāra was Pushkalāvatī which is identified with modern Charsadda a little above the junction of the Swat with the Kābul river. The *Kāśikā* mentions Pushkarāvatī as the name of a river in three *sūtras* (IV.2.85; VI.1.219; VI.3.119) along with certain other names as Udum-barāvatī, Vīraṇāvatī, Maśakāvatī. Of these Maśakāvatī seems to be identical with the name of the river on which Massaga or Massaka, capital of the warlike people known as the Aśvakāyanas was situated. It is possible that Pushkalāvatī and Maśakāvatī were the designation of only those particular portions of the river Swat where it flowed past by these two great towns of Gandhāra in the south and north respectively. It may be added that Patañjali mentions Udumbarāvatī, Maśakāvatī, Ikshumatī and Drumati definitely as names of rivers (II.287). Of these Udumbarāvatī may have flowed through the country of the Audumbaras, and Ikshumatī (also included in the Madhvādi group, IV.2.86) is identical with a tributary of the Ganges referred to as Oxymagis by Arrian and now known as Īkhan (also Kālindī) flowing through Farrukhabad district.

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The next great river mentioned in the north-west is the Sindhu after which the country to its east was named Sindhu, the present Sind-Sagar Doab (IV.3.93). Taking its rise from the snows of western Kailāsa in Tibet, the Sindhu first flows north-west for about half of its length, and then reaching the Darad country in the north-west of Kashmīr and south of Little Pamīr it takes a southward course along which lay its most famous places. A geographical feature of the Indus descending from the defiles of Dardistan is expressed in the grammatical formation *Dāradī Sindhuḥ*, naming it after its immediate source (*Prabhavati*, IV.3.83). Emerging from the Darad highlands the river enters the Gandhāra country with Swat or Uḍḍiyāna on its right and the ancient *janapada* of Uraśā (mod. Hazara in N.W.F.P.) on its left until it receives its most important western tributary the Kabul river at Ohind, a few miles north of Attock where it is at present crossed by a bridge. Ohind was the ancient Udbhāṇḍa, the place of transhipment of goods across the Sindhu and the spot where the great northern trade-route called Uttarapatha in *sūtra* V.1.77 crossed the river. Pāṇini's own birth-place, Śalātura was a riparian town of the Indus situated at a distance of only about four miles from Ohind in the angle of the Kubhā and the Sindhu. About sixty miles east of Ubhāṇḍa was Takshaśilā, the eastern capital of Gandhāra, and at an equal distance to the west was Pushkalāvatī (mod. Charsadda), its western capital. The trans-Indus country was known in ancient times as *Pāre-Sindhu* (*Sabhāparva*, 51-11). Its famous breed of mares imported into India is mentioned by Pāṇini as *Pāre-vaḍavā*, 'the mare from beyond the border' (VI.2.42).

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Varṇu, corresponding to Bannu on the other side of the river is mentioned in a *sūtra*, and also *Gaṇa-pāṭha*. The Bannu valley is drained by the rivers Kurram (Vedic Krumu) and the Gambila or Tochi which unite and flow into the Indus. The *Kāśikā* commenting on *sūtra* IV.2.103 speaks of Varṇu *deśa* named after the river Varṇu (*Varṇur-nāma nadas-tat-samīpo deśo Varṇuḥ*). It appears that the Kurram river after it left the Kurram Agency and from the point where it enters the Bannu valley was named Varṇu in ancient days. The place situated in proximity to Varṇu is mentioned as Vārṇava (IV.2.77, *gaṇa Suvāstvādi*). Although Bannu (Edwardesabad) is a modern town founded only in 1848, the valley after which the town was named is mentioned in ancient texts. Opposite Varṇu, across the river, was situated the famous Kekaya *janapada* mentioned in *sūtra* VII.3.2, comprising parts of the three modern districts Jhelum, Gujrat and Shahpur, adjoining which lay the Salt Range (Saindhava). To south of Kekaya was situated the Sindhu *janapada* lying north to south between the rivers Jhelum and Indus. Along the lowermost course of the river Sindhu was situated the ancient Sauvīra *janapada* (IV.1.148), now known as Sind.

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Of the rivers of the Punjab, Pāṇini mentions Vipāś (Beās) and the wells dug on its north side (*Udak cha Vipāśaḥ*, IV.2.74). The northern wells were more stable as being on high and dry ground than those on the other side and the former were therefore distinguished by the peculiar accent on their names.

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Pāṇini names two other rivers, Bhidya and Uddhya (*Bhidy-ōddhyau nade*, III. 1. 115). Uddhya is the same as Ujh flowing through Jasrota district and falling into the Rāvī (*Imperial Gazetteer of India*, Vol. XV, p. 73; located to the north-west of Mādhopur on the Rāvī, p. 107). On Pāṇini II.4.7 the *Kāśikā* illustrating the compound names of two rivers cites the example *Uddhy-Erāvatī*, that is Uddhya and Irāvatī, the former of which we must consider as a tributary of the latter on the analogy of *Gaṅgā-Śoṇam*, another example of the same rule, and of the counter-example *Gaṅgā-Yamune*. Bhidya may be identified with a river named Baī, rising in Jammu about 15 miles to the west of Ujh, and flowing into the Rāvī in the Gurdaspur district. The names Uddhya and Bhidya suggest that they dried up in summer but flowed in torrents in the rains, as indicated by Kālidāsa who describes their brisk and wayward movements as those of lusty youths like Rāma and Lakshamaṇa (*Raghuvaṁśa*, XI.8).

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*DEVIKĀ*—Pāṇini also mentions the river Devikā and what grew on its bank (*Dāvikā-kūla*, VII. 31.1), which Patañjali describes to be *śāli* rice (III. 316). Pargiter rightly identified it with the river Deg (*Mārk. Purāṇa*, p. 292). According to the *Vishṇudharmottara Purāṇa* (I.67.15) the Devikā flowed through the Madra country, and joined the Ravi according to the *Vāmana* (ch. 84). Rising in the Jammu hills, the Deg flows through Sialkot and Sheikhupura districts and joins the Ravi. In each rainy season it deposits on its banks layers of rich alluvium soil which produce rice of fine quality that are famous all over the Punjab and exported from Muridke and Kamoke towns. (cf. Jagannath Agarwal, On the Identification of the Devikā, *JUPHS*, 1944, Pt. II, pp. 76-79).

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Pāṇini mentions another river Ajiravatī (VI.3.119) the Achiravatī of Pāli texts (modern Rapti) on which stood Srāvastī. The next river mentioned in this region is Sarayū (VI.4.174) of which the Rapti is a tributary. It may be noted that Sarayū was also the name of a river in remote Ṛigvedic India flowing past Herat (derived from Hari-Rūd; cf. Old-Persian Harayū from Vedic Sarayū). Darius I (516 B.C.) in his inscription mentions *Haraiva*, the people of Harayū, equal to Pāṇini’s *Sārava*. In the Elamite version of the Behistun inscription occurs the name Arriya (=Haraiva=Gk. Aria with its capital at Heart).

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Another river Rathaspā is mentioned in the *Gaṇa-pāṭha* to *sūtra* VI.1.157 (*Bhāshya*, III. 96, *Rathaspā nadī*). This name occurs in the *Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa* (Caland, *JB.*, Extract 204) and in the Ādiparva (172.20) where it is one of the seven sacred rivers between Sarasvatī on the one side and Gaṇḍakī on the other. Most probably it was a river of Pañchāla and the name may correspond to Rhodopha which is mentioned by the Greek writers as marking an important stage on the great royal road from the frontier to Pāṭaliputra. Rhodopha is stated there to be 119 miles from the Gaṅgā; although it is called a town but the mention of the stages generally between two well-known rivers as Jhelum and Beās, Sutlej and Jamna, suggests its having been the name of a river (*Megasthenes*, Fragm. LVI; Rawlinson *Intercourse between India and the Western World*, p. 64). the distance of 119 miles lands us on the banks of the Rāmaganṅgā which is the only big river between the Gaṅgā and the Sarayū to present difficulties of crossing so as to merit the name Rathasthā, given to it in the Vedic period, and which is still in its upper course known as Ruhut or Ruput (*Imp. Gazetteer, U. P.*, I.166). The distances from Hastināpur on the Gaṅgā to Bareilly on the Rāmaganṅgā, and from Bareilly to Kanauj where the Rāmaganṅgā falls into the Gaṅgā, are equal to the stages of the Royal Road mentioned by Megasthenes from the Gaṅgā at Hastināpura to the town of Callinipaxa identified with Kanauj as the river Kālindī joins the Gaṅgā near it.

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Rathaspā or Rathasthā as the name of a river occurs as an independent *sūtra* in the *Ṛiktantra Prātiśākhya* (*sūtra* 209).

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Śarāvatī is mentioned in *sūtra* VI.3.120 (*Śarādīnām cha*). Several rivers lay claim to this name (cf. Dey's *Geog. Dict.*), the most famous one was that which separated the Udīchya from the Prāchya country already noted.

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Of the rivers of Central India (now Vindhya-Pradeśa) Pāṇini mentions Charmaṇvatī (Chambal, VIII.2.12).

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Pāṇini uses the term Rumaṇvat, which the *Kāśikā* connects with a place producing salt (*Lavaṇa-śabdasya rumaṇa-bhāvo nipātyate*). The form Rumaṇvat may have been based on the name Rumā, a river or lake in the district of Sambhar in Ajmer which is also the source of the river Lūnī.

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DESERT REGIONS—Pāṇini mentions a desert region as *dhanva* (IV.2.121), of which two examples are cited by Patañjali, *viz.* Pāre-Dhanva and Ashṭaka (II.298), and another by the *Kāśikā* as Airāvata. Pāre-dhanva literally means 'across the desert,' which seems to refer to the region called Thar-Parkar to the west of the Marusthala desert of Rajasthan. Āshṭaka-dhanva seems to be the name of the desert region of the Attock district which is called Dhanni, probably from *dhanva*. East Gandhāra included the desert of Attock and the hilly tracts of Rawalpindi called Pṛith *janapada*, both of which are preserved in the joint name Dhanni-Pothowar. The Bhīshma-parva (VI. 7) places Airāvata-varsha beyond the Sītā or Yarkand river in Chinese Turkestan where we may look for Airāvata Dhanva in the desert regions of Central Asia.

Section 4. Janapadas

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An important geographical term used by Pāṇini is *Janapada*, which was both a state and a cultural unit, its culture counting more than its geography. Its cultural integrity was reflected and preserved in the manners, customs and above all the dialect of its people. The citizens of the same (*samāna*) *janapada* were called *sajanapadāḥ* (VI.3.85). The *janapadas* known to Pāṇini are the following:—

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1. Kamboja (IV.1.175). Gandhāra, Kapiśa, Bālhīka, and Kamboja are the four *janapadas* the relative positions of which should be clearly understood. Of these Gandhāra extended from Takshaśilā, its eastern capital, to the river Kunar, its western boundary, and from the river Kābul in the south to Swat in the north. Next to it was the kingdom of Kapiśa coinciding with modern Kafiristan and occupying the whole area between the river Kunar and the Hindukush. The latter mountain identified as Rohitāgiri separated Kapiśa from Bālhīka. Sometimes Kapiśa politically formed part of Gandhāra, as in the reign of Darius, and then the name Gandhāra was applied to both of them. In none of these three *janapadas* can Kamboja be included. It stands as a separate *janapada*, which Lassen correctly identified with the head-waters of the Oxus comprising the Ghalcha-speaking areas of Pamir.

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This identification is also supported by important linguistic evidence, *viz.* that the root *śava* 'to go' which was noticed by Yāska as a peculiarity of Kamboja speech (*Śavatir-gatikarmā Kambojeshveva bhāshyate*, Nirukta, II.2), is still current there. (Cf. Grierson, *Linguistic Survey of India*, Vol. X, pp. 468, 473, 474, 476, 500, etc; Jayachandra, *Bhārata-Bhūmi*, pp. 297-303). The Kambojas are known as Kambujiya in the Old-Persian Inscriptions. In the *Aitareya Brāh-maṇa* the Uttarakurus and the Uttaramadras are described as living beyond the Himālaya (VIII.14); and in the *Vaṁśa Brāhmaṇa* Kāmboja Aupamanyava is spoken of as a pupil of Madragāra, from which the *Vedic Index* postulates a possible connection of the Uttaramadras with the Kambojas, who probably had Iranian as well as Indian affinities, (*Vedic Index*, I.84, 138 cf. also Jean Przyluski, An Ancient People of the Punjab: The Udumbaras, *Journal Asiatique*, 1926, p.11 showing that Bālhīka was an Iranian settlement of the Madras; Bālhīka-Uttaramadra).

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² *Prakaṇva.* The name is a corollary to Praskaṇva in *sūtra* VI.1.153 and is stated by the *Kāśikā* to have been a country (*deśa*). It should be identified with the people mentioned by Herodotus as Parikanioi, (modern Ferghāna, Sten Konow, *Kharoshṭhī Ins.*, p. xviii) who are said to have formed part of the empire of Darius. Prakaṇva was thus situated immediately to the north of Kamboja or the Pamir region.

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³ *Gandhāra.* Pāṇini mentions both the Vedic form Gāndhāri as the name of the *janapada* and its people in *sūtra* IV.1.169, and its later form Gandhāra in the *gaṇas* to IV.2.133 and IV.3.93. Gandhāra extended from the Kābul Valley to Takshaśilā. Two towns of Gandhāra are mentioned, *viz.* Takshaśilā, its eastern capital, and Pushkalāvatī, the western. The latter occurs in a *gaṇa* as the name of a river on which the town stood. The Greeks refer to it as Peucelaotes (modern Charsadda, situated near the junction of the Swat with the Kābul). The Pushkalas of the *Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa* must be the people of this region. The country between the rivers Suvāstu and Gaurī was known as Uḍḍiyāna which Kātyāyana mentions as Aurḍāyana (*Bhāshya*, IV.2.99; II.292). It was considered in ancient days a part of Gandhāra. A special variety of blankets known as *pāṇḍu-kambala* (IV.2.11) was a product of Gandhāra. Gandhāra is also known to the *Atharvaveda* for its wool.

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4. *Sindhu*. Sindhu was originally the name of the river, which gave its name to the whole country. The term Sindhu was corrupted to Hi(n)du in the Old Persian inscriptions of Darius I (516-485 B.C.) and to Indus by the Ionian (=Pāṇini's Yavana) Greeks. Sindhu as a *janapada* may be identified with Sind-Sāgar Doāb, the region between the Jhelum and the Indus. Most of it is now the sandy desert of Thal.

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5. *Sauvīra* (IV.1.148). Pāṇini mentions Sauvīra and gives valuable social history of the region. It was the home of many *gotras* of which he names two, Phāṇṭāhṛiti and Mimata, and the *Kāśikā* following an old tradition adds Bhāgavitti, Tārṇabindava, Ākaśāpeya, Yamunda and Suyāmā. Bhāgavitti is also mentioned by Patañjali (II.243) and may be identified with the present Bugti tribe on the northern border of Sind, numbering about thirty thousand. Pāṇini mentions Śarkarā or Śārkara (modern Sukkur on the Indus) as a town (IV.2.83) The name was suggested by its proximity to the rocky region (*śarkarāyāḥ adūrabhavaḥ*) on the borders of which Sukkur is situated.

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Pāli literature mentions Rauruka (modern Rori in Upper Sind) as the capital of Sauvīra.

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6. *Brāhmaṇaka*. It is mentioned in Pāṇini's *sūtra* V.2.71. Patañjali definitely calls it a *janapada* (*Brāhmaṇako nāma janapadaḥ*, II.298). The significance of its name is brought out by the *Kāśikā*, which describes it as the land of Brahmins who were *āyudhajīvins* or followers of military art, (*yatrāyudhajīvino Brāhmaṇāḥ santi*). Their military traditions continued up to the time of Alexandar whose invasion they resisted with patriotic heroism (Plutarch, *Alex.*, 59). The Greeks call them *Brachmanoi* and locate them in middle Sind (*Arrian*, VI.16), of which the capital is still called Brahmanabad (Cunningham, *Ancient Geog.*, p. 310).

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It may be noted that even Rājaśekhara (9th century A.D.) names Brāhmaṇavaha ('abode of Brāhmaṇas') as one of the *janapadas* of the west. The Muslim geographers called Brahmanabad as Bahmanwā after this old tradition.

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It may be noted that Patañjali mentions two formations *a-Brāhmaṇaka* and *a-Vṛishalaka* as names of countries (I.301), corresponding to Śaudrāyaṇa and Brāhmaṇaka respectively.

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Śaudrāyaṇa or the Śūdra country is mentioned along with other names in the *gaṇa* Aishukāri (IV.2.54) which denoted names of countries after their peoples (*Vishayo deśe*). Like the Brāhmaṇas, the Śaudrāyaṇas (=Greek *Sodrae*) also are mentioned as having opposed Alexandar. Cunningham treats the present Soḍā Rajputs of south-east Sind around Umarkot as their descendants (*Ancient Geog.*, p. 291). Diodorus couples the *Sodrae* with the *Massanae* as occupying the opposite banks of the Indus. Cunningham equates the *Massanae* with the *Mausarnaioi* of Ptolemy, which name corresponds to the Masūrakarṇa (derivative Mausurakarṇa) of the *Gaṇa-pāṭha* (II.4.49; IV.1.112).

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7. *Apakara*. This name is mentioned along with Sindhu in *sūtra* IV.3.32, to explain the forms Apakaraka and Āpakara, denoting its products. It may be identified with Bhakkhar on the Indus in Mianwali district.

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8. *Pāraskara* (VI.1.157). This is mentioned in the *gaṇa* Pāraskara-prabhṛiti. Patañjali treats it as a country (*Pāraskaro deśaḥ*, III.96). The name corresponds to Thara-Pārkara (Thara being the Sindhi form of Thala meaning dry country or desert, as opposed to Kachchha or *jāṅgala* country), one of the biggest districts of Sindh which once denoted the whole of its south-eastern part up to the coast of the Great Rann of Kachchha or Kachchha-Iriṇa.

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The *Ṛiktantra* takes the name Pāraskara as that of a mountain, and the term Pārakara for non-mountainous region, such as the Thar-Parkar district (*Pāra parvate*, IV.5.10, Suryakant's edition, p. 41).

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⁹ *Kachchha* (IV.2.133). Kachchha represented the water-logged portions in the south as against the dry desert area

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in the north. Kachchha was historically connected with Sindh forming its province in the seventh century when Yuan Chwang visited the country. Cunningham says that Kachchha and Parkar have always been linked together (*Anc. Geog.*, p. 347). Pāṇini also refers to the names of towns ending in Kachchha (IV.2.126), which were mostly situated along the coast from Bhṛigu-Kachchha to the province of Kachchha. The inhabitants of the Kachchha *janapada* were known as Kāchchhaka, and a reference to their peculiarities in speech, laughing and dress has already been noted.

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10. *Kekaya* (VII.3.2). The descendants of the Kshattriyas of the Kekaya *janapada* were known as Kaikeya. The ancient Kekaya *janapada* consisted of the territory now comprised in the three districts of Jhelum, Shahpur and Gujerat.

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11. *Madra* (IV.2.131). Madra was a part of the Vāhīka country, as already seen, with its capital at Śākala, modern Sialkot. Pāṇini mentions two divisions of Madra, Pūrva (Eastern) and Apara (Western) (*Diśo'Madrāṇām*, VII.3.13; also IV.2.108). Pūrva-Madra extended from the Ravi to the Chenab and Apara-Madra from the Chenab to the Jhelum.

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In the *Mahābhārata* Śākala is mentioned as the chief city of the Vāhīkas on the Āpagā river. Patañjali also mentions Śākala as a Vāhīka-*grāma* (IV.2.104; II.294; cf. also *Kāśikā*, IV.2.117). Pāṇini does not explain the derivation of the name Vāhīka. Kātyāyana, however, derives it from *bahis*, 'outside,' with the suffix *īkak* (IV.1.85.5). This seems to agree with the epic description of Vāhīka as the country of five rivers but lying outside the pale of Aryan society (*dharma-bāhya*), devoid of religion (*nashṭa-dharma*) and impure (*aśuchi*) Karṇaparva, 44.7.32).

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¹² *Uśīnara* (IV.2.118. Pāṇini mentions Uśīnara as a part of Vāhīka (cf. *Kāśika* on IV.2.118, *Uśīnareshu ye Vāhīka-grāmāḥ*). In the *Gopatha Brāhmaṇa* the Uśīnaras are regarded as northerners (II. 9, *Śavasośīnareshu Udīchyeshu*).

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Thus Pāṇini names three divisions of the Vāhīka country, *viz.* Kekaya, Uśīnara and Madra to which is to be added the fourth division Śavasa. Of these Kekaya and Śavasa may be located between the Jhelum and the Chenab, the first in the south and the second in the north respectively, and Madra and Uśīnara between the Chenab and the Ravi in the north and south respectively. The divisions become clear on the map.

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The *Divyāvadāna* refers to the Śvasas in Uttarāpatha with headquarters at Takshaśilā to which Aśoka was deputed by his father Bindusāra as Viceroy to quell their rebellion. The name Śavasa or Śvasa seems to be preserved in the modern name Chhibha comprising Punch, Rajauri and Bhimbhara. In literature the Uśīnaras are often associated with the Śibis (Gk. Śiboi) whose chief town Śibipura has been identified with Shorkot, headquarters of a Tehsil in the Jhung district.

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13. *Ambashṭha.* It is mentioned by Pāṇini in *sūtra* VIII.3.97, and is stated by Patañjali to be implied in *sūtra* IV.1.171 as the name of a *janapada* under a monarchy. The *Mahābhārata* locates them in the north-west and describes them as a kingship. The Ambashṭhas may be taken as Gk. *Abastanoi* or *Sambastai* on the lower course of the Chenab (*Invasion of Alexander*, p. 155).

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14. *Trigarta.* It is mentioned by Pāṇini as an *Āyudhajīvī Saṅgha*, and a Confederation of Six States known as Trigarta-Shashṭha (V.3.116). The Trigarta country, although in itself marked out by natural boundaries from the rest of the province, was partitioned into smaller territorial divisions or *janapadas*. The name Trigarta denotes the region drained by the three rivers, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, and corresponds to the Jālandhar group of states which had retained their geographical identity all these years. Jālandharāyaṇa is mentioned in the Rājanyādi group (IV.2.53).

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Patañjali mentions Pātānaprastha as a Vāhīka-grāma (II.298). It may be identified with Paithan or Pathānkot, situated at the entrance of the Kāngrā valley and at one time the capital of the Audumbaras (Cunningham, A.S.R., XIV, p. 116; also V, p. 153).

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The central portion of Trigarta formed by the valley of the Beas was also named Kulūta (same as Ulūka of the Sabhāparva, 27.5-16), now known as Kulū. Its ancient capital was at Nagara on the Beas, a name included in the Katryādi *gaṇa* (IV.2.95).

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Maṇḍamatī (Yavādi *gaṇa*, VII.29) was perhaps modern Maṇḍi, lying to the south of Kulūta. Pāṇini makes special mention of the Bhārgāyaṇa *gotra* in the Trigarta country (IV.1.111).

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¹⁵ *Kalakūṭa* (IV.1.173). It is mentioned as a *janapada* under a king. The Sabhāparva calls it Kālakūṭa and makes it a part of Kulinda (*Kulinda-vishaye*, 26.3) which was conquered by Arjuna. Pāṇini's Kuluna (*Gaṇa-pāṭha*, IV.2.133 and IV.3.93) seems to be the same as Kulinda and later Kuṇinda. Kulinda (Gk. Kulindrini) was known to Ptolemy as an extensive country including the region of the lofty mountains wherein the Beas, the Sutlej, the Yamunā and the Gaṅgā had their sources (McCrindle, *Ptolemy*, p. 105, 109). The Kalakūṭa lay somewhere in this area, with possible traces of its name in modern Kalka in the Simla hills.

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¹⁶ *Kuru* (IV.1.172). It was known to Pāṇini as a *janapada* and a kingdom. He also mentions the town of Hāstinapura (VI.2.101), which was its capital. The region between the triangle of Thaneshwar, Hisar and Hastinapur was distinguished by three different names: Kuru-rāshṭra proper between the Gaṅgā and the Yamunā with its capital at Hastināpura; Kurujāṅgala equal to Rohtak, Hansi, Hissar; and Kuru-kshetra to the north with its centre at Thaneshwar, Kaithal, Karnal. The *Kāśikā* mentions all the three as distinct geographical units (*Kuravaścha Kurukshetraṁ cha Kuru-Kurukshetram, Kuravaścha Kurujāṅgalaṁ cha Kuru-Kurujāṅgalam*, II.47). The name Āsandīvat, the place with the king's throne where Jana-

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mejaya Parīkshit is stated in the *Mahābhārata* to have performed his sacrifice, is also noticed by Pāṇini (VIII.2.12). Pāṇini also refers to the householders' way of life obtaining amongst the Kurus (*Kuru-gārhapatam*, VI.2.42) as against the ascetic way. It seems to be akin to the Kuru-dhamma of the *Jātaka* of that name which insisted on the purity of family life and the cultivation of proper domestic relations and virtues (*Kurudhamma Jātaka*, Vol. III, No. 276), a way of life and philosophy that are reflected in the basic doctrine of the *Bhagavadgītā* expounded in Kurukshetra.

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17. *Sālva.* Pāṇini mentions Sālva (IV.2.135), Sālveya (IV.1.169) and Sālvāvayava (IV.1.173) as three distinct *janapada* units which were monarchies. Of these Sālva seems to have been the parent state, Sālveya equal to Sālvaputra, a collateral branch, and Sālvāvayava, a bunch of kingly states which the enterprising Sālvas either brought under their conquest or planted during the course of their colonising activity. The last although confined to a limited geographical horizon in the central and north-eastern Punjab, were in relation to each other not geographically contiguous.

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The Sālva is mentioned as a pair *janapada* with Matsya as early as the *Gopatha Brāhmaṇa* (I.2.9) and also in the same group in the *Mahābhārata* (Bhīshmaparva, 10.3) where the Śālvas, the Mādreyas and the Jāṅgalas are juxtaposed. Matsya with its capital at Virāṭa (Bairāṭ in Jaipur) provides a fixed point and Sālva should be located near that region. Making allowance for the position of the other known *janapadas*, the only place left for Sālva coincides with the territory extending from Alwar to north Bikaner. It may be mentioned that the Sālvas were an ancient people who seem to have migrated from the west through Baluchistan and Sindh where they left traces of their name in Śālvakā-giri (mentioned by Pāṇini in the *Gaṇa-pāṭha* to VI.3. 117), the present Hālā mountain, and then advancing towards north Sauvīra and along the Sarasvatī finally settled in north Rajasthan. Of their intrusion towards the Yamunā some dim intimation is preserved in an old Vedic verse.¹

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*Sālveyaka*. The Sālveyakas are mentioned as a separate people in the *Mahābhārata*, grouped with the Matsyas in their fight with king Suśarmā of Trigarta (Virāṭaparva, 29. 2). They must be the same as Sālvaputra mentioned in the Udyogaparva (4.24) amongst kings to whom the Pāṇḍavas were to send emissaries. The name Sālvaputra may still be traced in Alwar, which is in the same geographical sphere. The Sālveyas stood in relation to the Sālvas as the Mādreyas to the Madras (Bhīshmaparva 10.37).

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*Sālvāvayava*. Of the several member states grouped in the Sālavavayava confederacy, the *Kāśikā* mentions six, viz. 1. Udumbara, 2. Tilakhala, 3. Madrakāra, 4. Yugandhara, 5. Bhūliṅga and Śaradaṇḍa (IV.¹.173).

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¹ *Yaugandharireva no rājeti Sālvīr-avādishuḥ, Vivṛitta-chakrā āsīnās-tīreṇa Yamune tava.* 'The Sālva women turning their wheels and sitting on thy banks, O Yamunā, have told us that their king is a Yaugandhari.' (Un ancien peuple du Panjab: Les Sālva, *Journal Asiatique* 1929, (pp. 311-354) p. 314). Keith considers a reference to war-like raid more plausible.

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*Udumbara*. The Udumbara (also Rājnyādi group, IV. 3.53) territory is fixed by the find-spots of their coins in the Kangra valley, between the Ravi and the Beas, and at Pathankot in Gurdaspur district at its mouth (Allan, *Coins of Ancient India*, Intro.p. lxxxvii). Udumbarāvatī as a river-name (*Bhāshya*, IV.2.71; II. 287) might be some tributary flowing through the Udumbara country on which the town of the same name was situated.

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*Tilakhala*. Looking at the map of this region we find that the area south of the Beas comprising Hoshiarpur district, where even today sesamum forms the main crop should be indentified with Tilakhala ('the threshing-floors of *tila*'). Thus Tilakhala and Udumbara were immediate neighbours, and the former appear to be the same as the Tilabhāras of the epic (Bhīshmaparva, 10.51)¹.

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¹ Vulgate 9.53; Poona edition gives *tilakāḥ* in the text and *Tilabhāra* in the foot-note.

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*Madrakāra*. The Madrakāras, as pointed out by Prof. Przyluski, signifies the warrior-troops of the Madras (*Les Salva, Journal Asiatique*, 1929, pp. 311-354; from old Persian *kāra* meaning 'army'). Their connection with the Sālvas was the outcome of an important event in the history of the two peoples, viz. the marriage of the Madra princess Sāvitrī with the Sālva prince Satyavān (Vanaparva, 279.15). It appears that consequent to this marriage three new small kingdoms came into existence for which distinct names have been preserved, e.g. 1. Sāvitrīputrakāḥ, 2. Madrakāraḥ and 3. Śālvasenyaḥ. The first represented the hundred sons of Sāvitrī and Satyavān mentioned both in the *Mahābhārata* (*Vanaparva*, 283. 12; Karṇaparva, 4.47) and in the *Gaṇa-pāṭha* (V.3.166, Dāmanyādi *gaṇa*). Putra denoted a clan as in the names Kehar-potre, Chanan-potre, etc. amongst the Arora Khattris of the Punjab, or in such old designations as the Śākyaputras. The Madrakāras and the Śālvasenyāḥ (Skt. *senā* corresponding to Iranian *kāra*; Bhīshmaparva 10.59), were smaller kingdoms of such warrior chiefs as were lent both by the Madras and the Sālvas in order to rehabilitate Sāvitrī and Satyavān who were bereft of their kingdom and married in exile.

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Madrakāra and Bhadrakāra appear to be variants of the same name (*madra*=*bhadra*, *sūtras* II.3.73 and V.4.67). It seems that Bhadra situated on the Ghaggar near the north-eastern border of Bikaner marks their old home.

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*Yugandhara*. Yugandhara should be some where in the region of the Yamunā, since the Sālva women spinning on its banks, as mentioned above, invoked Yaugandhari as their king. It may be located in Ambala district between the Sarasvatī and the upper Yamunā, where Jagādhari, probably is a relic of the old name.

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² Vulgate 9.61. Poona edition gives *Śarvasenyaḥ* in the text and *Śālvasenayaḥ* in the foot-note. For *Śarvasenayaḥ* cf. Pāṇini, V.3.116; *Kāśikā*, VIII.1.5.

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*Bhūliṅga.* The Bhūliṅgas should be identified with the *Bolingae* of Ptolemy settled in the north-west of the Aravallis. Bhūliṅga seems to be the same as Kuliṅga mentioned in the *Mahābhārata* (Bhīshmaparva, 10.38)¹ and the *Rāmāyaṇa* on the route connecting Sāketa and Kekaya at the point where the Śaraḍaṇḍā river was crossed (Ayodhyākāṇḍa, 68.16).

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*Śaradaṇḍa.* The Śaradaṇḍas must have been settled along the Śaradaṇḍā river mentioned above. Nothing is known about it, but the first part of the two names Śaradaṇḍā and Śarāvatī points to their being one and the same river. The latter formed the boundry between the Prāchya and the Udīchya divisions of India and may be identified with the Dṛishadvatī or Chitāṅg.

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*Ajamīḍha and Ajakranda.* Patañjali adds to this list three other names, viz. 1. Bodha, 2. Ajakranda and 3. Ajamīḍha. (IV.¹.170; II.289). The prefix *Aja* in the last two names has reference to a local cult deity Asura Ajaka with whom king Sālva was identified as its incarnation (Ādiparva, 61.17).²

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¹ ^1 The critical edition records Kaliṅga in the text and Kuliṅga in the foot-note; but all the *janapadas* in this list e.g. Sālva, Mādrey, Jāṅgala, Śūrasena, Bodha and Kuru-Pañchāla being of the Punjab-Rajputana region, the original reading must be taken to be Kuliṅga and not Kaliṅga, as supported by a Kashmir MS. also.

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*Bodha.* The Bodhas occur also in the list of the Bhīshmaparva (10.37-38) in the same group as the Kuliṅgas, the Sālvas and the Mādreyas. Patañjali also mentions them along with the Udumbaras (II.4.58; I.489).

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An important economic feature of the Sālva country was its special breed of bulls mentioned as Sālvaka by Pāṇini (IV.².136). The Sālva *janapada* also provided recruits for the infantry known in those days as *Sālvā padāti* (IV.2.135).

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² ^2 Vulgate 67.17; Poona edition gives *malla* in the text and *Sālva* in the footnote.

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Pāṇini further mentions a particular item in the Sālva dietary, the porridge known as *Sālvikā yavāgū* made of barley, which is still a favourite food of the people in Bīkaner and Jaipur states, i.e. the area which was formarly the Sālva *janapada*.

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¹⁸ *Pratyagratha* (IV.1.173). It is the name of a *janapada* in Pāṇini. While Patañjali and the *Kāśikā* are silent on this name, we have the later authority of Hemachandra referring to the Pratyag-rathas as belonging to the Ahichchhatrā region (*Abhidhānachintāmaṇi*, 4. 22). It may be noted that Pāṇini mentions the river named Rathasthā (=Ruhut or Rāmagaṅgā), ‘that which brings the chariot to a halt,’ a meaning suggested by Pratyagratha also. It may be taken as the ‘chariot’ of Aryan advance marching towards the east.

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¹⁹ *Ajāda* (IV.1.171). Nothing is known about this *janapada*. It is connected with the grazing of goats. It may be taken to be the Etawah district, the region between the Chambal and the Yamunā, famous for its goats (Hindi *jamnāpārī bakrī*).

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²⁰ *Rāṅku* (IV.2.100). Pāṇini uses the term Rāṅkavaka for a native of Rāṅku. He also mentions the terms Rāṅkavāvāyaṇa and Rāṅkava to indicate what was non-human, as examples of which the *Kāśikā* mentions the *Rāṅkavāyaṇa* bull and the *Rāṅkava* blankets. It may be noted that Raṅgka is the name of a language used in parts of Almora district (Moti Chandra, Indian Costume, *Bhāratīya Vidyā*, Vol. I, p. 46, footnote; for the Raṅgka language see, *Linguistic Survey of India*, Vol. III, pt. I, p. 479). So the Rāṅku *janapada* may have been located in this region which was the home of woollen blankets. The area of ancient Rāṅku must have been much bigger than at present.

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²¹ *Bhāradvāja* (IV.2.145). The Kāśikā states clearly that Bhāradvāja in this *sūtra* is not a *gotra* name but a country. As Pargiter has remarked Bhāradvāja is often mentioned in the *Mahābhārata* in connection with the upper part of the Ganges near the hills, and the Bhāradvājas were the people living in

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Garhwal (*Mārk. Purāṇa*, p. 320). Pāṇini mentions the Ātreyas as a division of the Bhāradvājas (*Gaṇa-pāṭha Aśvādi*, IV.1.110, *Ātreya Bhāradvāje*), and the *Mahābhārata* and the *Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa* also group them together.

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²² *Kosala* (VI.1.171). As seen above this figures as one of the sixteen *Mahājanapadas* of the Pāli texts. Its town Śrāvastī is mentioned by Pāṇini in a *Gaṇa-pāṭha*; also the two terms Sarayū and Ikshvāku in *sūtra* VI.4.174. Patañjali mentions Ikshvāku as a *janapada* (IV.2.104; II.298) which was obviously the same as Kosala.

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²³ *Kāśi* (IV.2.116). Pāṇini does not mention Kāśi as an independent monarchy like Kosala, and Magadha. The omission may be accidental, or due to political reasons reflecting the condition when Kāśi lost its separate identity and was under the control of Magadha. Pāṇini also mentions the term Vārāṇasī (the capital of the Kāśi *janapada*) in a *gaṇa* IV.2.97, and its citizens as *Vārāṇaseya*.

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²⁴ *Vṛiji* (IV.2.131). It was the name of a *janapada*. Its citizens were called *Vṛijika*.

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²⁵ *Magadha* (IV.1.170). It was a famous monarchy in Pāṇini's time, as we know from other sources. A Kshattriya descendant of the Magadha tribe was termed a *Māgadha*.

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²⁶ *Kaliṅga* (IV.1.170). Pāṇini mentions Kaliṅga as a *janapada* with a monarchy. Probably in his time the boundaries of Kaliṅga and Magadha touched each other.

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²⁷ *Sūramasa* (IV.1.170). As already noted this *janapada* may be identified with the Sūrmā Valley and Hill District of Assam.

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²⁸ *Avanti* (IV.1.175), an independent *janapada* with a monarchical government. Its capital Ujjayinī is referred to in the *Gaṇa-pāṭha* (IV.2.82; IV.2.127).

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