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An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c9.s19: 4.19 Late Historical

An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c9.s19

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4.19 Late Historical

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The period is dominated by religious edifices and sculptures, which fall within the realm of art history. It is said to be the age of feudalism (Sharma, 1965), when cities declined (Sharma, 1972, pp. 92-101). After the Guptas till the 10th century no ruler issued any coinage and this has led to the belief that trade, internal and external, was limited. This theory has been examined and it has been shown, by the assessment of epigraphic evidence on certain cities or towns, that trade did continue (Chattopadhyaya, 1974, pp. 203-29). Excavations at some cities, particularly in n. India, have shown that the older ones did not die out, though some do show lack of prosperity. The dynasties which ruled over the numerous principalities of the country and some of which assumed imperial dimensions each had its own capital, most of them identified in their ruins. Unfortunately no systematic investigation of late historical archaeology has been undertaken, and what limited excavations have taken place have been an unavoidable exercise to reach the lower (earlier) levels, more to the liking of the archaeologist.

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Chattopadhyaya, 1974, in *Ind. Hist. Review*, 1, 2. Sharma, R.S., 1965, *Indian Feudalism, 300-1200*, Calcutta; 1972, in *Proc. Ind. Hist. Congress*, Muzaffarpur.—A. GHOSH

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*4.19.1 N. region.* During the long span of time between the 4th and 13th centuries n. India, roughly comprising lower Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh, witnessed many a cultural transformation discernible through archaeological remains and antiquities, in spite of meagre excavated data. On the basis of available evidence the material unearthed so far can be broadly arranged into the following three period: (i) classical period (c. 4th century to 7th century); (ii) postclassical or protomedieval period (c. 8th and 9th centuries); and (iii) early medieval period (c. 10th to 12th centuries).

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The archaeological data available for these periods are mainly from ROPAR and SANGHOL (Punjab), AGROHA (Haryana), PURANA QILA (Delhi) and AHICCHATRĀ, ATRANJIKHERA, BHITARI, KAUŚĀMBĪ, KASHIPUR, KUŚĪNAGARA, MATHURĀ, RAJGHAT, ŚRĀVASTĪ, SARNATH, VIRBHADRA and other sites (Uttar Pradesh).

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(i) Classical period. The period was marked by several new cultural traits indicated by specific pottery types and other materials like ornamental bricks, fineness of artistic manipulation in terracotta figures and sculptures, developments of temple forms and emergence of some new socio-cultural and religious institutions. The characteristic pottery of this age is marked by highly artistic moulded or stamped forms with interesting designs in relief and some vases painted especially with horizontal bands, besides usual utilitarian forms mainly in red ware. Embossed and applied decoration is also noticed on some pots. The main types comprise the jar, vase, *surāhī*, shallow and deep bowl, lid, cooking *hāṇḍī* and sprinkler. The last-named is available mostly in dull red ware but in some cases, especially from the large Gupta temple complex at BHITARI and RAJGHAT, in the Red Polished Ware [11.23] also. Probably the sprinkler was used as *bhṛṅgāra* or *kamaṇḍalu*. A significant feature of the decorative designs on the pottery is the popularity of animal and human motifs. Depiction of Gaṅgā on a sherd from Mathura and a jar shaped as a jackfruit from AHICCHATRĀ [also KASHIPUR and VIRBHADRA] deserve special mention as artistic manifestations of the potter's art. Some pots also show the use of mica dust or particles on them. The spouts in this period are simpler.

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The structural activity of the period is mainly in burnt bricks laid in mud mortar but in most cases the bricks seem to have been robbed from earlier structures, although evidence of the preparation of new ones has also been encountered at a few sites like AHICCHATRĀ, KASHIPUR, Allahabad (Bharadvaja-Ashram, information from B.B. Lal), VIRABHADRA and in some structures at RAJGHAT. Limited data suggesting the use of dressed stone have also come to light from a few sites. Besides, mud, wood, tiles and brickbats also seem to have commonly served as building material. The employment of lime was confined to important structures.

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Earlier fortifications at some sites like KAUŚĀMBĪ and AHICCHATRĀ were still in use but the one at MATHURA does not seem to have served any effective purpose. However a notable fortified construction of an earlier date which survived up to the 5th century at SANGHOL had three moats, one outside the *prākarā* and the other two inside. At different sites the structural remains normally show more than one constructional phase, and they comprise big and small houses, partitioned rooms, platforms, rows of shops, pavements, *kuṇḍas*, wells and drains, besides religious edifices. The thickness of walls in some cases is suggestive of a storeyed building.

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The religious structures of this age are much more impressive than the secular buildings. Of them the notable ones (in brick) consist of grand terraced Brāhmaṇical temples, remains of Buddhist shrines with *rathas* and a wheel-shaped (with only four spokes) *stūpas* at AHICCHATRĀ; monastic complexes with cells around a central court at SARNATH, KUŚĪNAGARA and ŚRĀVASTĪ and a Viṣṇu temple built on a square terrace, with perhaps a flat roof, at BHITARI. On one of the terraced temples at AHICCHATRĀ large-sized terracotta figures of Gaṅgā and Yamunā were fixed besides smaller panels depicting Brāhmaṇical deities. The *Rāmāyaṇa* plaques found at the site of Kachchi Kuti at ŚRĀVASTĪ were also probably fixed on some Brāhmaṇical structure. The temple at BHITARI was perhaps decked with stone sculptures as indicated by a number of sculptural fragments found within this complex in the excavations. The famous SARNATH Buddha image and Buddha in *parinirvāṇa* posture at KUŚĪNAGARA, both of the Gupta age, and several other sculptures and structural fragments found at SARNATH and other sites also formed part of religious edifices. Similar also seems to be the case with several Buddhist, Brāhmaṇical and Jaina images from MATHURA. Many of the excavated sculptures of the period serve as fine representatives of the Gupta art styles showing high artistic standard. The temple at KASHIPUR was externally characterized with bold mouldings and *caitya*-window motif.

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From a number of sites in n. India ornamental bricks including moulded ones have also been recovered. A significant feature of a Buddhist *stūpa* of the period is represented by a copper-plate bearing the text of the *Nidāna-sūtra* (in Sanskrit) enshrined within the Nirvāṇa Stūpa at KUŚĪNAGARA. Terracotta tablets with the same text are found at NĀLANDĀ [12.8].

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A large number of terracotta figurines, including plaques with highly developed artistic traits of both secular and religious types, have been discovered from different sites in addition to stone plaques or miniature images of deities. The terracotta figurines distinctly fall in two groups, viz., (1) those of structural associations or monumental type, and (2) household type comprising toys, purely decorative plaques or figures and divinities, etc., including tablets like the one from MATHURA with Buddha in *bhū-sparśa-mudrā*.

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Seals and sealings belonging to this period too are significant, for, besides preserving the names of individuals, kings, settlements, offices, etc., they refer to religious denominations, socio-religious institutions like those of *traividya* and *cāturvidya Brāhmaṇas*, Vedic *caraṇas* (corporate bodies for the study of the Vedas), mottos, Buddhist creed [12.8], etc. Sacred motifs and deities are also found embossed or engraved on some of them. A lidded jar containing charred human bones found at RAJGHAT suggests some sort of post-cremation burial.

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Other important finds collected from the levels of this period at various sites mostly comprise shell bangles, coins of Gupta and other rulers, beads of different materials, grinding slabs, dice [6.7.1], gamesmen [6.7.2], rattles [6.7.4], ornaments and iron implements and other household articles, including a bronze cymbal, a votive shrine with *mātṛkās* and an iron padlock [6.12] from BHĪTĀ and stone goldsmith’s mould from AHICCHATRĀ.

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(ii) Post-classical or protomedieval period. The data relating to the 8th and 9th centuries are available only at a limited number of sites. There is probably a general decline of finer pottery although some types of the previous period continue. There is a greater emphasis on incised and embossed decorations. Rosettes, rows of beads, wavy lines, cross-hatchings, lotus petals, conches and semicircles form the principal motifs or designs. At some sites animal designs are also found on pottery. The principal ware of the period seems to be red though grey pottery is also found in limited quantities at some places. The chief shapes include the deep and shallow lid-type bowl, miniature pot, basin, vase with open mouth, jar, *hāṇḍī* with prominent lugs, etc.

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The structures of this age are built of mud bricks, stone and baked bricks. Bricks of earlier periods have been freely employed in constructions besides new ones. Many earlier structures including temples and monasteries continue in use in this period, sometimes with additions and modifications. A small shrine built within a wall with a corbelled arcuate opening unearthed at AGROHĀ is perhaps indicative of a private chapel. Remains of some of the houses of this age at certain sites covered a large area with several rooms. The floors were normally of mud and bricks. *Tandūr*-like ovens, exposed in the post-Gupta levels at PURANA QILA, also appear to be significant from a standpoint of food habits.

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The sealings of the period almost entirely consist of those belonging to Buddhism with Buddhist creed. The terracotta figurines, which are confined to limited varieties, are comparatively crude. Votive tablets, plaques depicting deities and tiny images for household use furnish some idea of religious beliefs of the period. Stone sculptures associated with diverse faiths and many sculptured architectural fragments belonging to religious structures have been unearthed from important settlements.

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Coins available in the 8th and 9th century levels of the n. Indian sites are of crude types and comprise issues of local rulers and Indo-Sassanian imitations [3.1]. A terracotta tablet inscribed with seven musical notes (*svaras*) in script of the 9th century and fragment of a burnt-birch manuscript of the same period from AGROHA are of cultural importance.

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(iii) Early medieval period. The pottery shape, especially the utilitarian types of the preceding period, survived with or without modifications. Of the distinct ceramic types mention may be made of the shallow bowl with knife-edged rim, lipped jug, pot with knuckle-like marks, ring-stand and pedestalled cup or bowl used as incense-burner [12.2]. The designs consist of wavy bands, both angular and without angularity, lattice patterns, hatched triangles, ladder motifs, multiple semicirclets, etc., which are either incised or stamped.

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The building materials are similar to those of the previous period, though with an increased employment of stone in some settlements.

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Amongst the architectural remains of this period, which are mostly ordinary, referencè can be made to: some partly extant brick structures and a large rubble-wall at PURANA QILA; a 1·50 m wide street with a lime-plastered central gutter connected with house drains at Mehrauli (Delhi); and impressive rubble fortifications of LAL KOT faced with dressed sandstone slabs and bearing circular bastions and an elaborate entrance passage, exposed during clearance operations in 1977-8, traces of a large house, a community hearth in a room, a large wall and a series of oblong chambers at AHAR,¹ Dt Bulandshahr. Besides, a Brāhmanical temple at Burgaon, Jhansi, in brick and shrines and monastic complexes at SARNATH, SRAVASTĪ, KUŚĪNAGARA and a stone plagged causeway at MATHURA are noteworthy.

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Other interesting objects pertaining to this age comprise a variety of sculptures of Brāhmaṇical, Buddhist and Jaina association, carved votive tablets, a model of a temple from AGROHA, minor household images, barbarous type of terracotta figurines from PURANA QILA, early medieval coins especially of bull-and-horseman types [3.1], arrowheads, chisels, nails, other implements, beads, glass, and copper bangles and other ornaments and metal bells, small-belled anklets (*kiṅkiṇīs*) and earthen lamps.

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For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—M.C. JOSHI

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*4.19.2 W. region.* No picture of the late historical cultures of Rajasthan, which are also known from other sources, cannot be clearly drawn for the limited evidence available to us mainly through the excavations at SAMBHAR, NAGAR¹ (personal notes of Krishna Deva, 1943-4), RANG MAHAL, NAGARI and MANDOR. However whatever outlines of the picture are available indicate that the cultural contents of the period were not dissimilar to those of the neighbouring regions and can be broadly grouped in the undernoted periods: (1) classical period (c. 4th to 7th centuries: (2) post-classical or protomedieval period (c. 8th and 9th centuries); and (3) early medieval period (c. 10th to 12th centuries).

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The archaeological data relating to the classical period indicate that most of them were akin to those of the Madhya-deśa, including the growth of artistic standardization both in ceramics and sculpture. However in the initial stages the cultural traits of the preceding age seem to have survived to a certain extent. The ceramic industry of this period is largely represented by red wares of diverse texture and fabric with plain utilitarian and ornate forms, besides kaolin pots. The principal types included the bowl, trough, vase, spouted vessel, globular jar, *surāhī*, sprinkler, incense-burner [12.2], knobbed lid, storage jar, etc. The RANG MAHAL ceramic tradition [11.24] perhaps continued for some time in the period with its varied wealth of painted decorations. However aesthetically significant were the moulded pots both in red ware and kaolin with diverse geometric and floral designs including rosettes, vine-creepers, some *patra-latā* patterns and zoomorphic depictions, besides those bearing embossed human figures like *mithunas*, *kinnaras*, Gaṅgā(?) and her descent from the matted locks of Śiva, Gaṇeśa with elephants and a female holding a vase with hands and other motifs. A solitary glazed sherd from the late levels of the period of NAGAR¹ indicates a restricted use of this industry. A few dabbers [11.16] from NAGAR¹ and SAMBHAR bear inscribed labels, possibly names of the owners, suggesting some kind of literacy amongst potters.

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The building remains largely demonstrate the use of burnt brick although construction in unbaked brick was also in vogue, especially at RANG MAHAL and SAMBHAR. The binding medium was generally mud mortar. At SAMBHAR a locally available stone called *jhajhara* was employed in some structural foundations. The floors were of compact earth, brick, brickbat and concrete. Mostly the houses, of different sizes, comprised a courtyard with rooms along the sides. Smaller dwellings were in the form of simple rows of two or more rooms. Some residential structures had door-steps with brick-on-edge borders. Terracotta finials suggest their use as spikes for elevational grace in important structures. It appears that the planned character of the township of NAGAR¹ was retained for some time with modifications. The structural activity of the latter part of the period was also carried out in complete and fragmentary bricks robbed from earlier levels. A significant feature of the settlements was represented in the construction of a stone fortification at NAGARI, where remains of a temple, possibly dedicated to Śiva, with ornamental bricks bearing skilful floral, bird and human-face motifs were also found. The ornate bricks are comparable with the contemporary structural terracotta work of excellent character from the Madhya-deśa sites.

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The artistic manipulation of the period is well-reflected in numerous terracotta renderings including those of gods and goddesses and secular association in diverse poses and expressions. They also reflect the prevailing iconographic norms and development of religious ideas and beliefs. Amongst notable figures in terracotta and kaolin mention may be made of representations of Durgā or Mahiṣa-mardinī, two-armed Gaṇeśa and a female flutist in *tri-bhaṅga*, a weeping human face (NAGAR¹) and Umā-Maheśvara and a flying figure (SAMBHAR), besides toy animals like humped bulls, camels, elephants, dogs, rams, tigers and a composite animal (*vyāghra-vyāla?*) and some birds (NAGAR¹). Along with moulded terracotta figures a few hand-modelled specimens were also found at the latter site. Some of these terracotta sculptures are characterized by extreme delicacy and sensuous modelling and grace of the movement and poses. Small stone plaques mostly belonging to the later part of the period depicted various divinities like Gaṇeśa, *nāga*, Sūrya, Lakṣmī, etc., and probably they were connected with personal worship.

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Household objects related to the contemporary day-to-day life comprised iron lamps, plain and decorated steatite caskets [18.2], ivory combs [18.3] with a single row of teeth, beads of various semiprecious stones, glass and faïence, shell bangles, copper finger ring, crystal bezel (NAGAR¹), antimony rods [18.1], *kalasa*-shaped *panjana-pātra*, ornate marble dabbers, iron implements like sickles, knives, copper spoons (NAGAR¹), a votive terracotta a dagger (RANG MAHAL) and dice [6.7.1].

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The material available for the post-classical period is limited and mainly comes from SAMBHAR, NAGAR¹, MANDOR and NAGARI only. The pottery consisted generally of red ware of inferior types and very limited quantity of grey ware. The chief ceramic forms normally comprised the vase, bowl with incurved or knife-edged rim, dish including the type with lug-handle, basin, storage jar and trough. The decorated variety of pots contained mainly incised and painted designs in black, red and white pigments.

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The structural remains of this period indicate poor craftsmanship in which mostly brickbats or bricks of earlier levels were employed. The surviving remains are fragmentary and consist of walls of a few courses and paved floors, some with circular holes. It appears that the terracotta finials continued in use to stress the elevation of the structure. The important constructions of the period were represented by a solitary stone sanctum at MANDOR and an excellently sculptured stone *toraṇa* at NAGARI. The latter might have served as a principal entrance to a contemporary shrine.

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Among the miscellaneous finds belonging to the period are figurines of an ape and a bull in terracotta, and stone plaques of Brāhmaṇical divinities like Śiva, Mahiṣa-mardinī, etc., beads of various materials, copper and shell bangles, a lead ring and coins including those of late Indo-Sassanian (Gadhaiya) type. Inscriptions of religious significance and with a partial genealogy of the Pratīharas, datable to *c.* 9th century, were found at MANDOR.

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No settlement of the early medieval period has so far been excavated and the only significant remains, exposed fully or partly, belong to three temples, two were at NAGAR¹ and one at MANDOR, besides traces of one single house at SAMBHAR. Of the temples at NAGAR¹, one is of stone and the other of brick. The former comprised a 16-sided *garbha-gṛha* with a *pradakṣiṇa-patha*, *antarāla* and *sabhā-maṇḍapa*.

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The solitary example of a house which had fragmentary brick walls yielded a few sandstone tablets depicting two female figures, four-armed Durga, Viṣṇu figures, part of a male figure with its right leg upon the head of a buffalo and a grotesque figure of half-donkey and half-man which furnishes some idea of prevailing religious beliefs.

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For sites see respective entries in vol. II.— M.C. JOSHI & A.K. SINHA

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The growth of towns and villages in Gujarat seems to have continued during the late historical period. Locally the old pattern was seen growing at places like NAGARA, Kamrej, Valabhīpura, etc., and another element, that is throwing of suburbs at a little distance from the older habitations, is also discernible at places like Vedodara (AKOTA) and DEVNIMORI area in the early part of this period. The establishment of new settlements is also evidenced at sites like Ghumli, Patan, Karnavati, etc.—either capitals or towns of some importance. Changing patterns are seen in the twofold phenomenon of the collapse of some habitations like NAGARA and the growth of new towns like Khambat. Some habitations like VADNAGAR, Kotyarka, SHAMALAJI, etc., were shrinking. But the overall picture is one of the growth of habitations. Some rock-cut caves were also excavated or old ones were reoccupied near the towns as well as away from them. Centres for quarrying stones for temple-building like Kadiadugar, Nathkuva, etc., were active. The construction of temples steadily advanced, culminating in the Chalukyan school of architecture. Brick temples, *stūpas*, forts, etc., were also built at KARVAN, DEVNIMORI, SHAMALAJI, VADNAGAR and other centres. The tradition of brick temples however seems to have been superseded for some time but was revived at a much late age. The problem of water conservation continued to attract attention. The Sudarśana lake at Junagadh was repaired, and many tanks in Dts Sabarkantha and Khera and around Ghumli were constructed in the early part of this period. While many of them got damaged by the 8th to 10th centuries and were never repaired, new ones, some of them surviving to this day, were also built around Patan, Dholka, Godhra, Viramgam and other centres. This phenomenon, like that of the towns, indicates the shift in local interests.

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The trade pattern established in the early centuries of the Christian era changed due to the collapse of the Roman empire. The e. Roman Empire and the Arabs and Persians, however, seem to have continued to import Indian materials and export some of their products. The travellers from the Arab world have recorded interesting features of life of this part of the country. The variety of coins comes to an end in the later half of this period and Gadhaiya coins [3.1] predominate the field.

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The ceramic traditions established in this period—plain red, plain black, red-and-black vessels, thick jars, painted pottery, stamped wares, etc., set the traditions that continue partly to the present. Foreign imports from w. Asia in the form of glazed material seem to make their appearance in the later part of this period, as also the Chinese Celadon Ware [11.25] from e. Asia. They become prominent in the succeeding period.

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Silk, specially double tie-and-dye separately on warp and weft, known later on as *paṭolā*, is a significant *de luxe* fabric, which became a very popular export item.

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Metallurgy was also advanced. Iron-smelting and production of tools, arms and utilitarian objects were widely practised as suggested by slag of iron discovered at many sites. But at sites like Kumbharia it seems that iron-smelting and tool-production were a subsidiary activity, the raising of architectural edifices being the main activity.

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A notable feature is the numerous war memorials in the form of horseman type and standing memorial stones found at many villages. They bear testimony to the constant feuds and tottering political control in the later part of 12th and 13th centuries.

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Trade seems to have attracted people from different parts of India to Gujarat. For other reasons people from w. Asia, including the fire-worshipping Parsis, also settled down in the region.

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For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—R.N. MEHTA

4.19.3 Middle region

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ing organizations. It was also the administrative capital of Tīra-bhukti, with royal princes as governors, but no imposing structures have been brought to light, nor any religious edifices. The flimsy ruins of the age bear a sad contrast to well-built Kushan structures lying beneath them. On the basis of the present data therefore one has to conclude that in building activities the Guptas, at least in the mid-Ganga valley, did not show any spurt at the habitation sites. The only notable feature was the construction of a burnt-brick defensive wall about 3 m wide and of military barracks. Within the fortified area only a few walls of fragmentary structures of indeterminable character were traced. Remains of only one structure may suggest its substantial character, as a wall was traced to a length of about 17 m with a large number of rooms attached to it. The building was roofed with tiles. At KUMRAHAR were found a brick-built well and numerous remains of brick houses, the walls of which could be traced to small lengths, limited to a few courses of bricks. The only noteworthy and somewhat substantial building complex belonging to the period is the Ārogya-vihāra monastery-cum-sanatorium complex, with small and large rooms, roofed with brick tiles. The smaller rooms may have been occupied by patients individually and the bigger ones could have been for prayers. (Fa Hien refers to monasteries with hospitals at Pāṭaliputra.) In the very limited excavations at CAMPĀ a few brick walls have been traced to some length with mud floors or floors rammed with brickbats, but there is no structure of a substantial character.

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The only exception is the NĀLANDĀ monastic complex founded in the Gupta period, where we have clear evidence of well-built brick monasteries, *stūpas* and temples. The structures are massive by any standard and have been laid according to a well-drawn plan with separate monasteries, temples and *stūpas*. The plinth of a stone temple decorated with a number of relief sculptures shows the utilization of stone. The main temple, with stucco images in the well-built niches, add grace and beauty to the establishment. The ruins of a Viṣṇu brick temple at APHSAD, Dt Nawada, belong to the close of the 7th century at the time of Ādityasena. The plinth walls of the temple are decorated with stucco panels depicting the *Rāmāyaṇa* story in a clear sequence. As many as eight such panels *in situ* have been exposed on one side of the plinth wall and in style and treatment they are near the time of the NĀLANDĀ stuccos. With the 8th century, in the Pāla period, building activities appear to have made remarkable strides. While VAIŚĀLĪ, PĀTALIPUTRA, SONPUR and RAJGIR are almost blank after 600 years or even more. At NĀLANDĀ the period marks a glorious chapter for its massive structures laid in many cases on previous Gupta *stūpas*, temples and monasteries. The excavations at ANTICHAK, the site of the Vikramaśilā monastery, have revealed a *caitya*-cum-monastery broadly of the Paharpur type. The *caitya* has two circumambulatory paths one above the other and the walls are decorated with terracotta plaques, both sacred and secular. The method of construction is peculiar: two parallel brick walls were constructed at a distance from one another, and the intervening space was filled up with rammed debris and brickbats. And on the floor thus constructed, the same process was repeated finally leading to the drum of the *caitya*. On each of the four cardinal sides huge images (three of clay and one of stone) of Buddha or the Bodhisattvas were installed. There is also a large monastery, with hundreds of cells all around, and the entire complex was surrounded by a wall which had large gates supported on stone pillars. In massiveness it compares favourably with NĀLANDĀ though there are architectural differences. At CAMPĀ some brick walls of structures belonging to this period have been traced to some length. It appears that more attention was devoted to Buddhist monasteries than to secular buildings. The Khalimpur inscription of Dharmapāla (late 8th century) refers to the grandeur and prosperity of the great commercial city of PĀTALIPUTRA, but excavations in various localities of Patna have not corroborated it even partly. One thing, however, that should strike us is that in the mid-Ganga valley remains of numerous forts made of brick and brickbats belonging to the Pāla period exist at such places as INDPE, Dt Monghyr, Odantapurī, Dt Nalanda, Naula and Jaimangalgarh, Dt Begusarai, Katragarh, Dt Sitamarhi, etc. This may suggest a difficult political condition and disturbed law and order situation during the period.

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The pottery throughout the period is non-descript. It is mainly a red ware with no painted designs, though with incised and applied decorations have been found at ANTICHAK. Among the forms the jar, bowl and offering stand crowned with a bowl with a flared rim may be mentioned.

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Very few coins have been found in excavations. Only a few Gupta gold coins and a coin mould were discovered at NĀLANDĀ, though it may be surmised that Gupta gold and copper currency was in general use. Copper coins of Chandragupta II have been found in exploration at Checher mound, opposite Patna across the Ganga. Pāla coins are also rare. Only a few *drammas* of Vigrahapāla III were picked up from Jaimangal and Naula complex. It is apparent that external trade was on the decline.

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But stone and bronze sculptural *ateliers* were very active. While a few Gupta stone sculptures have been found at NĀLANDĀ, and surprisingly elsewhere too in Bihar, the number of the later Pāla sculptures on black stone from Bihar is enormous. Remains of a bronzesmelting furnace have been found at NĀLANDĀ. Stucco was a favourite medium in Gupta and later times. Terracotta art shows no special development, reflecting the continuity from the past, though in equality and variety it is inferior to that of the Maurya-Śuṅga period. Metal objects—copper vessels, antimony rods [18.1] styli [20.5] and pins—outnumber iron objects, but daggers, swords and nails of iron have been discovered at ANTICHAK. The people's love of ornaments continued. We have stone beads of agate, carnelian and other stones, but compared to earlier periods their number is certainly limited.

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On the whole in many respects the material culture of the late historical period deduced from the archaeological data certainly does not impress us, in contrast to the Mauryan and Kushan periods, apart from vast Buddhist edifices and their contents.

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For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—B.P. SINHA

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4. 19.4 *Lower Ganga region.* The Ganga and its tributaries provide the natural background for the establishment of centres—commercial and political—in their valleys. The importance of Tāmralipta, TAMLUK in Dt Midnapur, whose antiquity going back to the Mauryan times has been mentioned above [4.18.5], does not seem to have continued as an important port-city during the post-Kushan period. The discovery of the foundation of a Gupta (or probably Pāla) temple and the surface collection of the bust of a stone Buddha image of the Mathura type (4th century) notwithstanding, CHANDRAKETUGARH [4.18.5] fails to produce any significant evidence to show its political and commercial importance after its Śuṅga-Kushan phase.

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The Gupta occupation of W. Bengal seems to have shifted its political focus from the Bhagirathi basin to the alluvium of Varendra. Stretching from the n. reaches of the flood-plain of the Ganga to the alluvial fan of the Nepal foot-hills, Varendra saw the growth of Koṭivarṣa (BANGARH on the Punarbhava river) as an important administrative city during the Gupta period. Pd I, pre-Gupta, of the site has been dealt with above [4.18.5]. Pd II, assigned to the Gupta period, contains the remains of a brick structure with small rooms. Pd III extends, according to the published report of the excavation, from the Pāla to still later times, though no chronological sequence of the excavated material, which includes inscribed clay sealings, terracotta figurines, medallions, toys, carts, punch-marked coins, iron implements, etc., is obtainable from the report of the excavation. A fortification with a ditch on three sides seems to have once surrounded this city. Another settlement of the Gupta period is represented by Asurgarh, Dt w. Dinajpur. Terracotta figurines, assigned on stylistic grounds to the Gupta period, have been reported from this site.

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The decline of the Gupta power in the Ganga valley witnessed the re-emergence of the Bhagirathi basin as the most dominant political zone in the region. During the 7th century Śaśāṅka, the king of Gauḍa, founded his capital at Karṇasuvarṇa. The two contiguous sites, Rakshasidanga and RAJBADIDANGA, at CHIRUTI in Dt Murshidabad are found to contain the ruins of this ancient capital city. Excavation at these two sites has exposed three Pds in the life of this city. Pd I, c. 3rd-4th century A.D., is not characterized by any significant find. Pd II is bracketed between *c.* 6th and 9th centuries. Several seals, some of which refer to the *Raktamṛttikā-mahāvihāra*, belong to this Pd with the foundation of a temple and the ruins of a large Buddhist monastery, and several stucco heads and iron implements and quantities of burnt grains. The burnt grains have been ascribed to 1200 ± 100 B.P.. on ¹⁴C basis. Pd III of the city yields no relic of importance.

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Very little has so far been published on the archaeological evidence of settlements in W. Bengal belonging to the Pāla-Sena epoch. A few sites ascribed to this period are all located in Varendra. Thus six bathing ghats at Sagardighi in Dt Malda are assigned to the 12th century. The site of Ballabari, Dt Malda, once surrounded by inner and outer fortifications, is believed to represent the combined residence and fortress of king Ballālasena. But this tradition awaits confirmation by archaeological probing.

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*Census 1971, W. Bengal Dt Handbook, Malda,* Calcutta. For sites see respective entries in vol. II—A.C. PAL

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4.19.5 *E. region.* For the first time a connected political history of the Brahmaputra valley in the late historical period is available under the Varmans (335-650), Śālastambhas (650-990) and Pālas (990-1138). At least 35 archaeological sites in the region could be ascribed to this period, out of which 31 are in Assam, with their concentration again only in three Dts—Kamrup, Darrang and Nowgong. This testifies to the fact that lower Assam was the centre of activity during the period. Yet out of all these sites there are hardly eight which throw any light on habitations; the rest are merely sites with temple relics and need not be dealt with here.

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In Assam AMBARI in Gauhati may be treated as the most representative site. At least three constructional phases of an urban settlement with ruins of magnificent buildings, drains, ring-wells [14.15], pottery, sculptures, etc., ascribed to Pd I (7th to 12th centuries A.D.) have been brought to light. The period is characterized by a buff-coloured kaolin pottery, not reported in any other part of the country and hence labelled as Ambari Ware. Similar potsherds have been found on the Navagraha, Kamakhya and Sarania Hills in Gauhati, at some sites in Nowgong and Tezpur and BHISHMAKNAGAR in Arunachal. The ¹⁴C date of the stratum with this pottery is A.D. 1030± 130. Made of well-levigated pure clay, this fine fabric is baked at a uniformly high temperature. The principal shapes are the globular jar with flaring mouth and short neck, carinated bowl, dish-on-stand and horn-shaped vessel comparable to Greek *cornucopia*. Red ware, grey ware and ware with coarse fabric are also found in small quantities. Among the few terracotta figurines may be mentioned the torso of a female, stylistically dated to the 8th-10th centuries. It is the finest specimen of art of the period. The stone sculptures, essentially of Brāhmaṇical deities, stylistically belong to the 8th-10th centuries.

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At the foot of the Navagraha Hill in Gauhati a terracotta boat, 2·95 m long, 85 cm wide and 25 cm high, with a maximum thickness of 12 cm, was excavated in 1970 (Ansari and Dhavalikar, 1971) and dated to the 7th-12th centuries A.D. Similar boats have also been found at Jhalukbari in the Gauhati Univ. campus. Perhaps they were meant for enshrining mortal remains and have no parallels anywhere else.

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Though the Kamakhya temple on the Nilachal Hill, Gauhati, is a living shrine of a later period, the antiquity of the site goes back to the 7th-8th centuries. Pottery, a relic casket [12.8], Buddhist and Brāhmaṇical sculptures, etc., have been found at the site (Choudhury, 1966, p. 437).

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The Narakasura Hill, 8 km s. of Gauhati, where 22 bronzes have been found and variously dated between the 8th and 11th centuries A.D., was a royal fortress with a temple, in which deities were centred around Indra· (Choudhury, 1967; Choudhury and Chutia, 1970).

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Like Gauhati Tezpur stands on large mounds having ruins of ancient cities and temples. Here Dalton noticed black pottery with floral designs (Choudhury, 1966, p. 444). The collected architectural relics at Cole Park in Tezpur are surmised to be the remains of the palace of Vanamāladeva (835-60) (Barua, 1966, p. 112).

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At Jogijanor Mandir, 11 km from Hajai in Nowgong Dt are the ruins of a 10th-century brick-built fort with three temples (Niyog, 1969, p. 108). Deoghar, 5 km from Sibsagar, where a 10th-century Umā-Maheśvara image was found is said to be a potential site for excavation (*ibid.*, p. 47).

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In Arunachal Pradesh Bhalukpung in Dt Kameng, 31 km n. of Chardaur, is a brick-built hill fort of 10th century (Allen, 1905, p. 67). BHISHMAKNAGAR at the foot of the Mishmi Hills in Dt Lohit, excavated during 1968-71, is a fort of classical type, with the ruins of a five-room palace of Kauṭilya's specification, two gates, wholly in brick, and an earthen rampart of an elongated semicircular shape, covering an area of 10 sq km (Raikar, 1972, 1978). It is the only fort site of the period where the complete layout has been brought to light. The pottery is wheel-turned and comparable to that of AMBARI but the finials are a speciality. Crucibles speak for metallurgy. Among the terracotta objects horse figurines and plaques with animal designs are significant. The period of the site extends from the 10th to the 16th centuries. BHISHMAKNAGAR represents the first Hinduized kingdom of e.most India.

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In addition must be noted the scattered but unstudied remains of ponds called *pukhuris*, fortifications, embankments and roads at places like Gauhati, Tezpur, Nowgong and Sadiya in Assam, and Roing area in Dt Lohit. Most of them could be of this period.

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Allen, B.C., 1905, *Assam Dt Gazetteers*, 5, Darrang, pp. 67-8. Ansari, Z.D., & Dhavalikar, M.K., 1971, in *Jour. Univ. Poona, Humanities Section*, pp. 79-87. Barua, K.L., 1966, *Early History of Kāmarūpa*, Gauhati, Choudhury, P.C., 1966, *History & Civilization of the People of Assam to the 12th Century A.D.*; 1967, in *Jour. Assam Res. Soc.*, 14. Choudhury, R.D., & Chutia, D., 1970, in *ibid.*, 19. Niyog, M., 1969, in *Pavitra Assam* (in Assamese), Jorhat. Raikar, Y.A., 1972, in *Arunachal News*, Shillong; 1978, in *ibid.*—Y.A. RAIKAR

4.19.6 C. region

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With a view to properly understanding the nature of the late historical cultures of c. India it is essential to take cognizance of the political history, especially the succession of different dynasties which ruled over this region and the archaeological data in the form of the occurrence of distinctive and datable ceramic industries and a passing reference to monuments in the region.

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It is neither possible nor necessary to have a detailed historical account of c. India, now more or less equivalent to the State of Madhya Pradesh. In the late historical period, in the post-Harṣa age, early in the 8th century, one branch of the Gūrjara-Pratīhāras became the rulers of Malwa. These Gūrjaras probably belonged to the same ethnic group as the Hūṇas. Their realm seems to have extended right up to the Narmada, Vatsarāja being a famous king of this dynasty. Similarly Nāgabhata I was a distinguished king of the Pratīhāras who is stated to have repulsed the attack of the Arabs of Ujjayinī in the 8th century.

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The Paramāras, beginning of the 9th to the middle of 13th century, made a deep impact on c. India. A number of temples and copper-plate grants of this dynasty are known. Māhiṣmatī, Ujjayinī and Dhārā attained the status of capital towns during the regime of this dynasty. Initially owing allegiance to the Rāṣṭrakūṭas, they founded an independent kingdom of Malwa in 972 encompassing the Godavari on the s., Sabarmati on the w., Banswara region on the n. and Vidiśā on the e. Muñja was responsible for the expansion of the empire and he patronized poets, built several temples and excavated a number of tanks. Another famous king was Bhoja, 11th century, who was known for his conquests, scholarship, prolific architecture and knowledge of astronomy and grammar. He established a university at Dhārā for Sanskrit studies which is even now designated as Bhojaśālā though converted into a mosque. He also built the dam of Bhojpur. After Bhoja the Paramāras did not have a smooth time. The Chalukya king Jayasiṁha and finally Kumārapala, 12th century, annexed the entire region of Malwa.

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From the first quarter of the 13th century c. India and particularly Malwa were frequently invaded by the Muslims. Balban in 1250, Sulṭān Jalālu'd-Dīn in 1283 and 'Alāu'd-Dīn Khaljī in 1305 wrought havoc and annexed Malwa. Smaller chieftains like the Ahīrs, 13th-14th century, the Rathods, the Sesodias and the Bhilala chiefs who held petty principalities do not deserve anything more than a passing reference.

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It may be made clear here that the foregoing sketch, essentially a historical one, does not relate to archaeology and is not an account of cultures of which little has been unearthed, though several grants, coins, inscriptions and monuments of these dynasties have been recovered. However glazed pottery which is associated with and is supposed to be the product of the Islamic culture has been reported from MAHESHWAR on the Narmada and UJJAIN on the Sipra in Pds VII and IV respectively in excavations. From MAHESHWAR it appears that the houses of the common people were insignificant pieces of architecture, though contemporary forts, palaces and temples are lavish.

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Dikshit, M.G., 1954, *Madhya Pradesh ke Puratattva ki Ruparekha*, Saugar-Poona. Shrivastava, P.N., ed., 1970, *Madhya Pradesh Dt Gazetteer, W. Nimar*, Bhopal. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—S.B. DEO

4.19.7 N.-e. Deccan

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The archaeological records of SISUPALGARH are perhaps the most convincing evidence of the historical fact of the transition from the early eras of prosperity to a decadent phase (c. 200-350)

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which brought about the end of the occupation at the site. It was the close of this phase that marks the beginning of the late historical cultures of Orissa. The finds of this period, which include Puri-Kushan coins and an imitation gold coin of the Kushans, hardly throw any light on the cultural life of the people. However a few *yakṣa* and *nāga* images found in the periphery of Bhubaneswar reflect the cultural pursuits and affiliation of the people in that epoch of uncertainty.

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The Gupta invasion of Orissa had a great impact upon its cultural growth. The upsurge introduced many new political elements, the foremost of them being the Māṭharas whose rule extended roughly from *c.* 350 to 500. The period is particularly noteworthy for the first appearance of Śaivism and Vaiṣṇavism in Orissa. From the epigraphic sources it is known that the rulers espoused the causes of Brāhmaṇism and Vaiṣṇavism, both of which flourished with remarkable popularity, though Buddhism simultaneously retained its hold.

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Meanwhile a new centre of a flourishing culture had come into being in Dt Keonjhar. Here we find, between Sitabhinji and Denguaposi, two adjacent villages, extensive remains of an ancient township and a number of rock-shelters of which one contains a tempera painting of a royal procession depicting a king on elephant with a contingent of cavalry and infantry. At the bottom is inscribed in 5th-century characters the name of Mahārājā Diśābhañja, the suffix of the name indicating the family to which the king belonged. This remarkable work of art recalling the tradition of Bagh in c. India, along with other finds such as a *caturmukha-liṅga*, scattered boulders inscribed in the s. Indian characters of the 5th century and a soapstone figurine amply demonstrate that Sitabhinji was a prosperous town, as well as a flourishing Śaiva centre.

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Another flow of culture, apparently the main current, is encountered in the coastal region. Here, in the 7th century Bhubaneswar suddenly became the hub of a brisk temple-building movement which expressed itself in the progressive evolution of a distinctive style of architecture known as the Kalinga order. The importance of the centre lies not only in the group of temples which presents a complete chronicle of the Orissan style of temple architecture but also as showing a confluence of diverse religious cults and sects prevailing in the region. Numerous representations of Lakulīśa, the founder-teacher of the Pāśupata sect of Śaivism, in all the early temples of Bhubaneswar, clearly indicate that the inspiration for the activity was provided by that particular sect in the process of bringing about a sudden change in the religion of the people. The earliest group of extant temples, of which Paraśurāmeśvara is the best example, belonged to the period of the Śailodbhavas, who asserted their independence some time after 619, the date up to which the Gauḍa king Śaśāṅka had remained as the overlord of Koṅgada.

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The Śailodbhavas were followed by the Bhaumas who attained a high stage of culture. The landmarks of the epoch are the emergence of Mahāyana Buddhism as the dominant form of religion and the first appearance of Śāktism in Orissa. Virajā or modern Jajpur in Dt Cuttack, the capital of the Bhaumas, soon became a renowned centre of Mahāyāna Buddhism and Śāktism. The Vaital Deul at Bhubaneswar, a singular temple of an exotic appearance, is assigned to this period and is the first Śākta shrine of Bhubaneswar. Through its eclectic representations are refracted the spectrum of cultures and moods of the times. Evidently there was co-existence of Śāktism, Śaivism and Mahāyana Buddhism notwithstanding a strong religious rivalry among them. The Bahirangeśvara temple on the top of the Dhauli hill and an inscription of Śāntikaradeva in a cave of the hill testify that the hill again became a centre of religious activities during the rule of the Bhaumas.

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These apart, remains of Buddhist art and architecture of the period have been discovered at KHICHING in Dt Mayurbhanj, at Baudh, at Chowduar near Cuttack and on the hills of Udayagiri, Lalitagiri and RATNAGIRI in Dt Cuttack. Colossal images of Buddha, Bodhisattvas, Tārā and host of other deities of the Mahāyāna order abound in these hills, which have proved to be the veritable store-houses of Buddhist sculptures. Hiuen Tsang visited Puṣpagiri-vihāra, located in this region, and from his account it is known that the famous *vihāra* was a prosperous and magnificent establishment under the patronage of the Bhaumas. The extensive remains of a Buddhist establishment uncovered at RATNAGIRI, comprising a main *stūpa*, magnificent monasteries, shrines, innumerable votive *stūpas* and sealings bearing the legend *Ratnagiri-mahāvihāra ārya-bhikṣu-saṁghasya* testify that RATNAGIRI, like NĀLANDĀ, was a prosperous and renowned centre of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The date of the establishment extending from the 8th to the 13th century indicates that Buddhism continued to flourish as a living faith in the hills while Śaivism became the religion of the plains.

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The fame of Orissa as a centre of culture and learning reached even beyond the frontiers of India to China during the Bhauma rule. From the history of China it is known that the Bhauma ruler Śubhākaradeva sent the manuscript of a religious treatise along with a letter (now preserved in China) to the Chinese emperor towards the close of the 8th century. The episode, apart from revealing cultural relations with China, is a tribute to the culture and learning of Orissa during the Bhauma era. On the whole Orissa attained unprecedented heights in art and culture during the Bhauma rule.

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Towards the beginning of the 9th century the Bhauma kingdom broke up in confusion and in the sequel vassals of the Bhaumas established themselves in their own regions. Of them the Bhañjas of Mayurbhanj came to limelight in w. Orissa not only as powerful rulers but also as great patrons of art. The sprawling remains of KHICHING indicate that under the Bhañja chiefs KHICHING (Khijjiṅga-koṭṭa) was a prosperous town where Brāhmaṇism, Buddhism and Jainism flourished at an equal space and a distinctive school of art and architecture had grown up in the region. A small-scale excavation brought to light the partial remains of a brick quadrangular structure, appearing to be a monastery.

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The Somavaṁśīs, popularly called the Kesaris, became all powerful in Orissa in about the middle of the 10th century. Chowduar near Cuttack was the capital of the rulers. Its ruins, on the bank of the Birupa, are spread over several villages, but the site is greatly disturbed by modern constructions. Jajpur, Dt Cuttack, was the metropolis of many dynasties. The catholic outlook of the rulers finds an eloquent expression in the sculptural vocabulary of the Mukteśvara temple at Bhubaneswar. Among other works the construction of the largest Śaiva temple at Bhubaneswar is the greatest contribution of the rulers of the dynasty. The last ruler, Uddyotakesarin upheld the cause of the revival of Jainism in Orissa. An inscription in the Lalāṭendukesari cave (Cave 11) of the KHANDAGIRI hill records that Uddyotakesarin, in his fifth regnal year, repaired temples and wells on the hill (called Kumāraparvata in the inscription) and set up the images of Tīrthaṅkaras in a few of the old caves.

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The Somavaṁśīs were overthrown by the Gaṅgas at the beginning of the 12th century, which ushered in a brilliant epoch in Orissa. Epigraphic records of the family reveal the transfer of the capital to Barabati fort in modern Cuttack and within the capital was built a temple of Puruṣottama in 1230. It is also known that the Gaṅga kings made liberal grants for the construction and maintenance of the Śaiva temples at Bhubaneswar and elsewhere. The Gaṅgas seem to have had a predilection for a grandiose architecture of soaring height and elaborate plan with an emphasis on the exuberance of plastic embellishments. The Jagannātha temple of Puri and the Sun temple at Konark are the outstanding contributions of the Gaṅgas. The glitter of the Gaṅgas faded away during the rule of the Sūryavaṁśī Gajapatis who supplanted the Gaṅgas in the 15th century. The period represents a decadent phase in the sphere of art and architecture in Orissa.

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