Chandragupta Maurya and His Times c9: Chapter VI: Administrative Departments and Officers

Chandragupta Maurya and His Times c9

Language: English

Chapter VI: Administrative Departments and Officers

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**Departments and Officers: Greek Accounts.** An interesting and valuable account of these is given by Megasthenes from what he had himself seen of the working of the Indian Administration under Chandragupta Maurya. E. R. Bevan, who has critically examined the Greek evidence in the original, states [*Cambridge History of India*, Vol. I, ch. XVI]: “The account which Megasthenes gave of the various officials points to a highly organised bureaucracy. They were, he said, of three kinds: (1) *Agronomoi* ‘District Officials’; (2) *Astynomoi*, ‘Town officials’; and (3) Members of the War office.

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**District Officials (*Agronomoi*).** “The duties of the first kind were to supervise (1) Irrigation and Land Measurement, (2) Hunting, (3) the various Industries connected with Agriculture, Forestry, work in Timber, Metal Foundries, and Mines, and they had (4) to maintain the Roads and see that at every ten *stadia*¹ (1⅛ miles) there was a mile-stone indicating the distance (this is the passage which proves that Megasthenes did not mean to assert a general ignorance of the art of writing in India.”)

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¹ Yojana=8 miles; 10 Stadia=2022½ yards=⅙ of a Yojana =1⅛ of a mile [Rhys Davids, *Buddhist India*, p. 265; *Cambridge History*, I. 185]. McCrindle takes a unit of 10 *Stadia* to stand for an Indian *Krośa* or *Kosa*.

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The Town Officials (*Astynomoi*) : "The second kind, the Town Officials, were divided into six Boards of five. Their respective functions were (1) Supervision of Factories (2) Care of strangers, including control of the Inns, provision of Assistants, taking charge of sick persons, burying the dead (3) the Registration of Births and Deaths (4) the Control of the Market (5) Inspection of Weights and Measures, the inspection of manufactured goods, provision for their sale with accurate distinction of new and secondhand articles (6) collection of the Tax of 10 per cent charged on sales.

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"The six Boards acting together exercised a general superintendence over public works, prices, harbours, and temples."

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To these officers we may add the following in the words of Megasthenes.

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Priests. "The philosophers who are engaged by private persons to offer the sacrifices due in life-time and to celebrate the obsequies of the dead. In requital of such services they receive valuable gifts and privileges." This really points to the Ecclesiastical Officers or priests who ministered to the religious interests of the people.

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Espionage. "The *Overseers* whose province it is to enquire into and superintend all that goes on in India, and make report to the king, or, where there is not a king, (i.e., in the case of the Republics which were seen to be as prevalent as the monarchies in his time by Megasthenes) to the Magistrates" (i.e. the Chief Officers of the Republics). Strabo adds [XV. 1, 46-9]: "Some are entrusted with inspection of the City, and others with that of the Army. The former employ as their co-adjutors the courtesans of the city, and the latter the courtesans of the camp. The ablest and most trustworthy men are appointed to fill these offices." To this Arrian adds: "It is against use and wont for them to give in a false report, but, indeed, no Indian is accused of lying."

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**Councillors.** "The Advisers of the King, the Treasurers of the State, the Arbiters who settle disputes (i.e., the judges both civil and criminal); the Generals of the Army and the Chief Magistrates (i.e. the Heads of Departments who are called *Adhyakshas* by Kauṭilya)."

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Megasthenes further states that these high Officers of the State were recruited from the class of Officers described by him under the general name of Councillors and Assessors. It is interesting to note that these correspond to the general body of Officers called *Amātyas* by Kauṭilya, out of whom Kauṭilya also recruits, as we have seen, the Ministers of different ranks, the High Officers of the State like the *Sannidhātā* (whom Megasthenes calls Treasurer), the Judges, the Heads of Departments (whom Megasthenes calls the Chief Magistrates) and other subordinate officers.

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**Other Officers.** "Herdsmen and hunters, who alone are allowed to hunt, and to keep cattle, and to sell draught animals or let them out on hire. In return for clearing the land of wild beasts and fowls which devour the seeds sown in the fields, they receive an allowance of grain from the king."

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"The armour-makers and ship-builders receive wages and their victuals from the king, for whom alone they work."

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"Of these, some are armourers, while others make the implements which husband-men and others find useful in their different callings. This class is not only exempted from paying taxes; but even receives maintenance from the Royal Exchequer."

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"Officers who superintend the rivers, measure the lands as is done in Egypt, and inspect the sluices by which water is let out from the main canals into their branches, so that everyone may have an equal supply of it."

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"Fighting men who are maintained at the king's expense and hence they are always ready, when occasion calls, to take the field; for they carry nothing of their own with them but their own bodies."

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"Officers who collect the taxes and superintend the occupations connected with lands, as those of the wood-cutters, the carpenters, the black-smiths and the miners."

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"Officers who construct roads, and, at every ten stadia, set up a pillar to show the by-roads and distances."

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"Officers in charge of the Royal Stables for horses and elephants and also the royal magazine for arms."

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Further: "A private person is not allowed to keep either a horse or an elephant. These animals are held to be special property of the king and persons are appointed to take care of them. There are professional trainers of horses who break them in by forcing them to gallop round and round in a ring, specially when they see them refractory. Such as undertake this work require to have a strong hand as well as a thorough knowledge of horses. The great proficients test their skill by driving a chariot round and round in a ring; and in truth it would be no trifling feat to control with ease a team of four high mettled steeds when whirling round in a circle.”

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**List of Officers.** A study of these Greek accounts of Indian Administration will show that they notice a large number and variety of administrative interests, urban and rural, and of Officers, to deal with them in the different Departments of Administration. A list of these as mentioned by them includes the following:—

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1\. Ministers, Advisers, and Councillors. 2\. The Chief Magistrates (Heads of Departments) and City Magistrates. 3\. Revenue and Taxes. 4\. Irrigation. 5\. Survey and Settlement (Land Revenue Administration). 6\. Agriculture. 7\. Forestry. 8\. Timber Factories. 9\. Metal Foundries. 10\. Mines. 11\. Urban Factories. 12\. Foreigners in cities. 13\. Inns (urban). 14\. Vital Statistics. 15\. Care of the Sick. 16\. Control of Market. 17\. Weights and Measures. 18\. Controllers of Public Works. 19\. Priests.

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20. Overseers.
21. Treasurers.
22. Judges.
23. Herdsmen and hunters.
24. Armament Manufacturers.
25. Ship-builders.
26. Manufacturers of agricultural implements.
27. Superintendents of rivers and canals for distributing water for irrigation.
28. Horses, elephants, chariots.

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It will be seen that while the Greek writers could only make a mention of the various administrative officers and indicate generally their functions, it was left to Kauṭilya to give detailed descriptions of these functions and of the working of the various Departments administering the manifold interests committed to their care.

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**Kauṭilya’s Scheme of Administration: The Province (*Janapada*).** The unit of administration in the Kauṭilīya scheme [II. 1] was the *Janapada* or Province which normally consisted of at least 800 villages with 100-500 families (*Kulaśatāvaraṁ pañchaśatākulavaraṁ*) to each village. If the normal family which was a joint family (*Kula*) be regarded as consisting of 10 members with three brothers and their children, then the total population under each provincial administration would number 40 lacs. The provincial Governor (*Rājūka*) under Asoka is stated in his Inscription [Pillar Edict V] to be ruling over “many hundreds of thousands of souls.”

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The villages were situated or planted within a convenient distance of each other so as to afford mutual protection (*Krośa-dvikrośa-sīmānamanyo- *nyāraksham*). Natural boundaries were availed of as far as possible to separate them, e.g., a river, a mountain, a forest, and the like (*nadīśailavana*).

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*Defences.* The provincial defences were well organized. The approaches to the Province were protected by the frontier pickets under the Warden of the Frontiers called *Antapāla* (*Janapada-dvārān-yantapālādhishṭhitāni sthāpayet*), while the interior was protected and policed by a special staff recruited from deer-trappers, Śabaras (‘born of Śūdra father and Bhil mother’), Pulindas (‘born of Nishṭaya or Mlechchha father and Kirāta mother’), Chaṇḍālas and Foresters (*teshāmantarāṇi Vāgurika-Śabara-Pulinda-Chaṇḍālāraṇyacharāḥ raksheyuḥ*). In the four extremities of the Province [II. 3] (*chaturdiśaṁ janapadānte samparāyikaṁ daivakṛitaṁ durgaṁ kārayet*; again [II. 1]: *Anteshvantapāla-durgāṇi*) were constructed four forts which utilized the natural fortifications afforded by water or mountain, desert or forest (*nadī-parvatadurgaṁ janapadā-rakshasthānaṁ dhānvanavanadurgaṁ*).

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*Centres of Administration.* Administrative head-quarters or civil stations were located at the centres of 800, 400, 200, and even 10 villages and were called respectively (1) *Sthānīya* (2) *Droṇa-mukha* (3) *Kārvaṭika* and (4) *Saṅgrahaṇa*. Of these, a *Sthānīya* was the centre of wealth in the locality (*samudayasthānaṁ dhanotpattisthāna-bhūtaṁ* in II. 3), a sort of a provincial capital in those days.

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*Provincial Head.* (Collector-General, ‘*Samā-hartā*’): *District Collector* (*Sthānika*). The Head of the Provincial Administration was the *Samāhartā*, the Collector-General, who controlled [I. 1] a number of district Collectors in his Province. Each Province was in fact divided into four Districts [II. 35] (*samāhartā chaturdhā janapadaṁ vibhajya*), each of which was placed under an officer called the *Sthānika* who was responsible for the affairs of his District (*evaṁ cha Janapada-chaturbhāgaṁ Sthānikaḥ chintayet*).

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**Sources of Revenue.** The Collector-General was responsible for the realisation of the provincial Revenue. The Revenue was derived from a variety of sources, each of which required a special administrative Department for its utilisation and expansion. Thus an account of the sources of Revenue will supply the key to administrative organisation and machinery brought into being.

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The duty of the *Samāhartā* was to see to (*aveksheta*) the collection of Revenue due from the following sources, viz., (1) Towns (*Durga*) (2) the country side or rural parts (*Rāshṭra*) (3) Mines (*Khani*) (4) Plantations (*Setu*) (5) Forests (*Vana*) (6) Cattle (*Vraja*) and (7) Communications (*Vaṇik-patha*, 'roads of traffic').

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**Durga.** The Revenue to be derived from the Towns or urban areas (*Durga*) was the Revenue to be collected from a number of sources, each of which was separately administered by a Department under its special Head called *Adhyaksha* assisted by a suitable staff. These administrative Departments were those of (1) Customs (*Śulka*) (2) Police (*Daṇḍa*) (3) Weights and Measures (*Pautava*) (4) Municipalities (*Nāgarika*) (5) Boundaries (*Lakshaṇa*) (6) Passports (*Mudrā*) (7) Excise (*Surā*) (8) Slaughter-house (*Sūnā*) (9) Cotton Industry (*Sūtra*) (10) Oil Industry (*Taila*) (11) Dairy (*Ghṛita*) (12) Sugar Industry (*Kshāra*) (13) Gold (*Svarṇa*) (14) Warehouse (*Paṇyasaṁsthā*) (15) Courtesans (*Veśyā*) (16) Gambling (*Dyūta*) (17) Buildings (*Vāstuka*) (18) Arts (*Śilpa*) (19) Crafts (*Kāru*) (20) Religious Institutions (*Devatā*) (21) Octroi (*Dvārādeyam*) and (22) Amusements (*Bāhirikadeya*, 'amusements like Acting, Dancing, etc.') [II. 6].

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All these twenty two Departments were administered by as many Heads or Superintendents (*Adhyakshas*) and made up the city's general and municipal administration.

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*Rāshṭra.* Much of the Revenue of the State was derived from the countryside through which its sources lay scattered. Each such source had to be carefully tapped and administered by a separate Department under a Head or Superintendent with a special staff. These sources of Revenue are thus enumerated:

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(1) *Sītā*, Crown Lands.

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(2) *Bhāga*, the share of agricultural produce payable to the State as Land Revenue.

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(3) *Bali*, a general Land-Tax.

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According to Megasthenes [Frag. I], "the Husbandmen pay a land-tribute to the king, besides paying a fourth part (*Bhāga*) of the produce of the soil." The usual sense of *Bali* in Sanskrit is a religious offering or voluntary contribution.

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It may be noted that the village Lumbini (*Luṁmini-gāme*) was rendered *ubalike* and *aṭhabhāgiye* (*udbalika* and *ashṭa-bhāgika*) by Asoka out of regard for it as the native place of the Buddha (*hida Bhagavaṁ jāte ti*), as recorded in his Rummindei Pillar Inscription. Thus the State in Asoka's time imposed a *Bali* or Tax on all land in addition to its usual share of agricultural produce called *Bhāga* which was reduced by half, from 1/4 to 1/8, for this village. In Kauṭilya's language [II. 35], Lumbini thus became a *parihāraka* village.

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(4) *Kara*, Tax on Orchards (*phalavṛikhsādi-sambandhaṁ Rājadeyam*).

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(5) *Vaṇik*, Tax on merchandise at source (*Vaṇigadvāreṇādeyam*).

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(6) *Nadīpāla*, Tax payable to Superintendent of Rivers at the landing places leading to centres of pilgrimage (*Tīrtha-rakshaka-dvāreṇādeyam*).

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The Greek writers also tell of the Superintendents of Rivers.

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(7) *Tara*, Ferry charges (*Nadītaraṇavetanam*).

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(8) *Nāva*, Tax payable to the Superintendent of Shipping (*Nāvadhyaksha-dvāralabhyam*).

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(9) *Paṭṭana*, Taxes payable at market towns.

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(10) *Vivīta*, Tax on Pasture-lands.

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(11) *Vartanī*, Road-cess payable to the *Antapālas*, the Wardens of the Marches (*Antapāla-dvāralabhyam*).

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(12) *Rajjū*, Cess payable for Settlement to the rural officer called *Vishaya-pāla*.

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(13) *Chora-Rajjū*, Chowkidārī or Police Tax to be collected at the village and levied for expenses for catching thieves (*Choragrāhakāya grāmadeyam*).

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Khani. The Superintendent of Mines is to collect the imports payable by Mines such as those of "silver, diamond, gems, pearls, corals, conch-shells, metals, salts, and other minerals extracted from earth, stone, or oil-fields (*rasa*) like mercury"

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(*Suvarṇa--rajata--vajra--maṇi-muktā-pravāla-śaṅkha-loha-lavaṇa-bhūmi-prastara-rasa-dhātavaḥ Khaniḥ*).

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Setu. This term indicates the collection of Taxes levied on cultivated fields or gardens producing (a) Flowers (*Pushpa* like *Kuṅkuma*) (b) Vegetables (*phala-vāṭa vārtāku-urvāruka*) like 'Brinjals, Cucumber and the like' (c) Sugarcane (*Vāṭa ikshu-vāṭa*) (d) Plantains and Betel-nuts (*Shaṇḍa*) (e) Crops like Rice (*Kedāraḥ dhānyakshetram*) (f) Spices such as 'ginger, turmeric and the like' (*Mūlavāpa*).

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Vana. Tax on Forests of which four classes are mentioned, viz., those of (1) Cattle (2) Deer (3) Commercial products like timber or rubber (*dravya*) and (4) Elephants.

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Vraja. Taxes levied on Cattle-breeding-or Stud-Farms for the rearing of domesticated animals such as "Cow, Buffalo, Goat, Sheep, Ass, Camel, Horse and Mule."

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Vanikpatha. Taxes levied on Roads of Traffic by Land or Water and collected at their ends or entrances.

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The realization of provincial Revenue from such a large number and variety of sources called for an elaborate administrative machinery, a hierarchy of officers comprising the Minister in charge of the Revenue Portfolio at the top called the *Samāhartā*, Collector-General, the Heads of Departments, and any number of subordinate staff attached to each Department, making up what may be called the provincial Civil Service.

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Kauṭilya in the second Book of his *Arthaśāstra* gives an account of the working of the following Departments, viz. those of (1) Accountant-General (*Akshapaṭalādhyaksha*).
(2) Mines (*Ākara*).
(3) Gold (*Suvarṇa*).
(4) Stores (*Koshṭhāgāra*).
(5) Commerce (*Paṇya*).
(6) Forest Products (*Kupya*).
(7) Armoury (*Āyudhāgāra*).
(8) Weights and Measures (*Tulāmānapautava*).
(9) Customs (*Śulka*).
(10) Spinning and Weaving Industry (*Sūtra*).
(11) Agriculture (*Sītā*).
(12) Excise (*Surā*).
(13) Slaughter House (*Sūnā*).
(14) Courtesans (*Gaṇikā*).
(15) Shipping (*Nau*).
(16) Cattle (*Go*).
(17) Horses (*Aśva*).
(18) Elephants (*Hasti*).
(19) Chariots (*Ratha*).
(20) Infantry (*Patti*).
(21) Passports (*Mudrā*).
(22) Pastures (*Vivīta*).
(23) Metals (*Loha*).
(24) Mint (*Lakshaṇa*).
(25) Treasury (*Kośa*).
(26) Elephant-forests (*Nāga-vana*).
(27) General trade (*Saṁsthā*).
(28) Religious Institutions (*Devatā*).
(29) Gambling (*Dyūta*).
(30) Jails (*Bandhanāgāra*).
(31) Ports (*Paṭṭana*).

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It will be seen from the above list of Departments that all are not necessary for the collection and administration of Revenue, while some are Departments connected with the administration of cities or Municipalities. These may be taken to be Nos. (10), (12), (13), (14), (29), (30), and (31). Some again are Departments belonging to the capital and royal Palace. These are Nos. (1), (3), (4), (7), (8), (24), and (25). Some of these Departments again such as Nos. (4), (6), (25) are Departments placed in charge of the Minister of Revenue and Stores (*Sannidhātā*) whose business is to receive the Revenue gathered in by the Minister of collections (*Samāhartā*). Thus these two officers are the most important in the entire Civil Service, most of whose offices are subordinate to them. There is a third officer of the same high status, the Accountant-General to whom the different departments have to submit their accounts. Nos. (17), (18), (19), (20), together with No. (7), would be under the *Senāpati*, Commander-in-chief.

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It is hardly necessary to repeat that most of these Departments and officers are mentioned by the Greek writers and the correspondence of their observations to the account of Kauṭilya is very close and striking so as to establish the trustworthy character of both.

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*Samāhartā.* The *Samāhartā* is so called because he gathers in the Revenue of the State from different sources and realises it fully without allowing arrears of collection (*Sarvāyasthānebhyaḥ Rājārthānāṁ samyak samantāt vā āhartā*). His duty is further defined to be *Samudaya-Prasthāpanam* [I. 1], to establish ways and means of obtaining and increasing Revenue (*Samudayo dhanotthānam tasyopāyaḥ =*

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*panam mārgaparikalpanam* | *Samāhartā kayā kayā vidhayā samudayaṁ prasthāpayet ityetat*). This shows that the *Samāhartā* like the Chancellor of the Exchequer was empowered to initiate new schemes of taxation and levy new taxes as sources of additions to Revenue.

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*Sannidhātā*. The officer complementary to *Samāhartā* was the *Sannidhātā* who took charge of the Revenue as it was gathered in and received into the State Treasury. While the *Samāhartā* was an executive and spending authority, the *Sannidhātā* was in charge of saving and accumulating revenue. He had to store up the revenue by constructing buildings and chambers appropriate to the kind of things in which revenue was received (*Nichaya-karma dravyasaṁgraha-rakshaṇa-karma*). For that reason he had to construct (1) a *Kośagṛiha*, the State Jewellery House, for storing up 'precious stones, gold and the like' in which revenue was paid; (2) *Paṇyagṛiha* where was housed the merchandise for sale (*Vikraya-dravya*), (3) *Koshṭhāgāra*, the State Granary for storing 'articles of food, grain, oils and the like', (4) *Kupyagṛiha*, store-house for forest-produce of all kinds by which Revenue was realised in kind; and (5) *Āyudhāgāra*, the royal Armoury.

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Treasury-House. The *Kośagṛiha* is to be built in two parts: (1) the subterranean chamber, *Bhūmigṛiha*, to be built of three storeys (*tritalaṁ*) with flooring and walls of stone, many rooms constructed in a framework of timber (*anekavidhānaṁ sāradārupañjaraṁ*), provided with a mechanical moveable staircase (*yantrayuktasopānaṁ*), carvings *pidhānam*) and only one door; (2) the upper part, the Treasury-house proper (*Kośagṛiha*) to be built like a *prāsāda* or palace, with its outer and inner door fitted with bolts (*ubhayatonishedhaṁ bahirantaśchārgala-yuktam*) and provided with a hall of entrance (*sapragrīvaṁ mukhaśālayā sahitam*) and furnished with rows of vessels (*bhāṇḍavāhinī-parikshiptam*) for holding the precious articles.

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Besides the Treasury-house at headquarters, the *Sannidhātā* was also to build on the borders of the country (*janapadānte*) against emergencies palatial mansions by employing as builders criminals condemned to death (*abhityaktaịḥ purushaiḥ vadhyaiḥ*), who are to die after the completion of the building, so that their designs and plans by which its treasures are stored will remain a secret.

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**Other Buildings.** The house of merchandise (*Paṇyagṛiha*) will be one of four buildings round a quadrangle (*chatuḥ-śālaṁ*) and with many rooms (*anekasthānatalam*).

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The Granary House (*Koshṭhāgāra*) should be similarly built.

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The store-house of forest produce (*Kupya-gṛiha*) must be more commodious, made up of many spacious buildings, each with rows of rooms along its walls.

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The Armoury (*Āyudhāgāra*) should be similarly built, but it is to be provided with an underground chamber (*bhūmigṛiham*).

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**Courts, Secretariat, and Prison.** The *Sannidhātā* is also charged with the duty of constructing three other important government buildings: (1) Courts of Justice with accommodation for litigants, and lock-up for accused (*Dharmasthīyaṁ tatra dharmasthā* *vyavahārārthaṁ āgatānāṁ avasthityārthaṁ vyavahāra-parājita-nirodhārthaṁ cha sthānaṁ*); (2) Secretariat Buildings, with accommodation for (a) Offices of Ministers who are Heads of Departments like the *Samāhartā* and *Sannidhātā*; (b) for Ambassadors; and (c) for persons secured in the course of war (*viśvāsādhitvena gṛihītānāṁ yuddha-parigṛihītādīnāṁ*); (3) Prison-House (*Bandhanāgāra*) with separate accommodation for Male Wards and Female Wards, and with cells (*kaksha*) whose exits are well guarded (*vibhakta-strīpurushasthānaṁ apasārataḥ suguptakakshyaṁ*).

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It is interesting to note that some of these buildings had shrines in which Deities connected with their business were installed. For instance, god *Dhanada* was installed in the *Kośagṛiha*, goddess *Śrī* in the Commercial Building and Store-house, god *Viśvakarmā* in the *Kupya-gṛiha*, god *Yama* in the Armoury and *Varuṇa* in Jail [Commentator].

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The *Sannidhātā* will thus discharge his responsibility for the revenues of the State with the assistance of his own staff of trustworthy officers (*āptapurushādhishṭhitaḥ*). He should have a knowledge of the resources of the State, the sources of its revenue from both urban and rural areas (*Bāhya-abhyantaraṁ āyam*) for a period of last 100 years so that he may answer questions about it without any difficulty. He should also always be able to show the surplus revenue of the State in the Treasury.

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**Accountant-General** (*Aksha-paṭalādhyaksha*). Like the *Samāhartā* and the *Sannidhātā*, there was another officer at the Centre to control the Departments and District Officers. He was the Accountant-General who was in charge of the two offices of Currency (*Akshapaṭala*) and Accounts (*Gaṇanā*). The term *Aksha-paṭala* means the *paṭala* or office where visible objects like coins are counted (*Akshā gaṇanayogyāni rūpyakādīni teshāṁ paṭalaṁ sthānaṁ Aksha-paṭalam*) [I. 1]. His first duty is to bring together the Heads of different Departments (*tattadadhyakshāṇāṁ sambhūya sva-sva-karmānushṭhānadeśaṁ kārayet*) [Commentary on II. 7], and then to provide for them necessary office accommodation. He is to arrange for different rooms for different Departments and for their Heads in accordance with their rank (*vibhaktopasthānaṁ vibhaktāni uttama-madhyama-adhamānāmadhyakshānāṁ pṛithak-sthityanukulatayā vibhajya*). He is also to fit up the rooms with accommodation for the books of accounts and records (*nibandha-pustakasthānaṁ*).

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He will have the number and names of different Departments (*adhikaraṇānāṁ saṁkhyā nāmataḥ parigaṇanam*), their localities (*prachāro janapadaḥ*), and the total (*agram*) of revenue produced by each in relation to its administrative area, entered in their respective account-books.

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He should also enter in the books particulars showing how different Departments, in respect of different works undertaken by them (*karmāntaḥ* ‘such as Mines, Rice-fields, Commercial products, Currency and the like’), invest their resources (*dravyāprayoge*) with reference to (1) profit (*vṛiddhi*), (2) employment of paid labour (*kshayaḥ yugyapurushaviniyoga*), (3) cost in grain and cash (*vyayaḥ dhānyahiraṇya-viniyoga*), (4) quantity produced or the demand for it (*prayāmaḥ*), (5) amount of *vyājī* (premia in cash or kind) realised, (6) adulteration (*yogo dravyāpadravymiśraṇam*), (7) locality of production, (8) wages, (9) retained labour (*vishṭi*, denoting labourers not working on hire but retained on terms of domestic service).

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The Accountant-General is also to record in his books particulars as to the following:

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(1) The religious practices (*dharma*), laws (*vyavahāra*), and customs (*charitra-saṁsthānam*) observed by different regions (*deśa*), villages (*grāma*) castes (*jāti*), and families (*kula*).

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(2) The privileges (*pragraha*), residences (*pradeśo vāsasthānam*), gifts (*bhoga-upāyanam*), remissions of taxes (*parihāra*), use of horses, elephants, and troops (*bhaktaṁ aśva-gaja-padāti-abhyavahāraḥ*) and salaries (*vetanam*) enjoyed by State-officials (*rājopajīvī*), such as 'Mantrī, Purohita, etc.'

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(3) Special allowances given to the king, queen, and the princes (*nirdeśam*), special allowances for festivities (*autpādikalābhaṁ utsavādibhavaṁ dhanalābhaṁ*) and for ceremonies to ward off evils like diseases (*pratīkāralābham*).

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He will also have recorded in his books the following particulars to be supplied by the Heads of different Departments (*Sarvādhikaraṇānām*): (1) the work to be done, (2) the work done, (3) cash balance, (4) revenue and expenditure, (5) statements of accounts (*nīvī*), (6) the time for submission of their reports of work by the scribes (*upasthānaṁ kāyasthānāṁ svasvakārya-darśanārthasannidhāna-* *kālam*) and (7) the locality concerned, its customs, and previous systems followed in it.

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He is to assign to Superintendents of different grades, high, middle, and inferior, works suitable to their qualifications. The Commentator instances Superintendents of Works of three grades concerning (1) Treasury (2) Granary and Armoury and (3) Wines and Meats. For these bodies of officers (*Sāmudāyikeshu*), persons of special fitness are to be appointed, who can be punished without causing any remorse to the king. This rules out officers 'who are Brahmins or friends or intimate relations of the king.'

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The Chief Accountants (*Gāṇanikyāni gaṇanāḥ tatpradarśakāḥ Adhyakshāḥ*) of different Departments are to come to headquarters to present their accounts in the month of Āshāḍha, the last month of the financial year.

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They are to assemble in one place in the Accountant-General's office with sealed boxes containing their books of account (*Samudra-pusta-bhāṇḍa*) and the net balances of revenue. They are to remain in the hall without talking with one another (*ekatrāsambhāshāvarodham kārayet*). They are first orally to explain the accounts relating to receipts, expenditure, and the total of revenue (*nīvī*) before the net revenue is received into the Treasury. The account orally given is compared with that written in the books. If the amount of income stated is less than the amount of the books, or if the stated amount of expenditure is less than the amount entered in the written account; or if the stated cash balance (*nīvī*) is in excess of what is written; the Accountant in each case will have to pay 8 times the amount of the difference as a penalty for false accounting. Conversely, if there is a difference between the Central Account books and those of the Districts as to the amounts of Income, Expenditure, and Cash Balance, the difference is not to be made good.

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The Chief Accountants who do not present themselves at headquarters in time (i.e., in the month of Āshāḍha) with their books of account and cash balances of revenue will have to pay a penalty.

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Conversely, when they so present themselves (*kārmike adhyakshe upasthite*) but are not attended to by Accountants (*Kāraṇika gaṇanādhikṛita*) of the Central Office, these are to be fined.

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The ministers in a body (*samagrāḥ Mahāmātrāḥ*) are to bring together the Heads of Departments in the Districts in a meeting and explain to them the general revenue position of the Province with reference to revenue receipts, expenditure, and surplus (*Prachārasamaṁ Mahāmātrāḥ samagrāḥ śrāvayeyuḥ avishamamātrāḥ, prachāro janapadaḥ jānapadān sadasi melayitvā bodhayeyuḥ ityarthaḥ*). A minister keeping aloof or misrepresenting accounts is punishable.

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Accounts are to be posted daily (*ahōrūpahara*).

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The cash balance and daily account submitted by the Accountant are to be checked by the Chief Accountant who is to see how far they correspond to (1) religious injunctions (*dharma*), (2) law (*vyavahāra*), (3) custom (*charitra*), (4) precedence (*saṁsthāna*), (5) total of revenue receipts (*saṅkalanaṁ sarvadhanaikīkāra-gaṇanā*), (6) the work accomplished (*nirvartana*), (7) estimate of revenue (*anumāna*) and (8) report of informers on the revenue realized (*chāraprayoga*).

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Abstracts of accounts shall be prepared (*pratisamānayet*) every 5 days, fortnight, month, four months, and per year.

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Failure on the part of a *Kāraṇika* to enter revenue realized (*Rājārthe apratibadhnataḥ rājārthaṁ pustakeshu alikhitaḥ*), or to follow instructions (*ājñāṁ pratishedhayato*), or to write accounts of income and expenditure according to prescribed forms (*nibandha*) is punishable.

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Not writing accounts in the proper order (*kramāvahīnaṁ avalikhataḥ*), writing accounts in inverted order (*utkramaṁ avalikhataḥ*) writing accounts in a manner not comprehensible (*avijñātaṁ avalikhataḥ vedituṁ anarhayā rītyā likhataḥ*), or entering the same item again (*punaruktaṁ*), all such wrong accounting (*avalikhanam*) will be punishable.

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Making wrong entries of cash balance (*nīvīmavalikhato*), embezzlement (*bhakshayato*) or causing loss of revenue (*nāśayataḥ*) are punishable [II. 7].

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**Superintendents or Heads (*Adhyakshas*) of Departments in the Districts.** We shall now consider the duties assigned to the *Adhyakshas* in charge of different Departments, and of productive or profitable works and concerns in the Districts, as sources of revenue to the State.

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**Their Salary and Grades.** As has been stated above, the salary attached to the grade of *Adhyakshas* or Superintendents is 1000 *paṇas*. Government servants of grades (*varga*) from 100 to 1000 are to be placed under *Adhyakshas* who are empowered to fix their subsistence (*bhakta*), salary (*vetana*), emoluments (*lābha*) instructions (*ādeśa*) and assignment of work (*vikshepa*). In case there is no work for them (*avikshepe*), the *Adhyakshas* will depute their respective staffs to take charge of royal property (*rājaparigraha*), fortifications, and Law and Order in the country (*Rāshṭrarakshāvekshaṇa*). The subordinate staffs must always work under the Heads of their respective sections (*nitya-mukhyāḥ*), and will also be under the many Heads above them (*aneka-mukhyāḥ*) [V. 3].

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**Nationalisation of Industries.** It will also be observed that the Kauṭilīya polity was based on a considerable amount of socialism and nationalisation of industries. A large part of the administrative machinery is employed in the management and exploitation of State property of various kinds administered as business concerns. There were large royal estates and forests. The State had a monopoly of Mines. It carried on both Export and Import Trade and appropriated the profits of middlemen. It established factories for working up of raw materials of different kinds into finished products. Besides, as revenue was payable in kind, large establishments had to be maintained all over the country for dealing with vast quantities of agricultural products tendered in payment of taxes, as well as the products derived from the crown estates. Again, a Central Store at headquarters was necessary for several purposes, as a reserve against famine, as provision for the royal household, as a source of raw material for the royal manufactories, and, lastly, as the means of paying salaries to officials in kind.

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**Department of Agriculture.** We shall now describe the working of the principal Departments of Administration.

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**Director of Agriculture** (*Sītādhyaksha*). The Director of Agriculture (*Sītādhyaksha*) [II, 24] was in charge of the cultivation of crown lands or of Government Agricultural farms.

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**Supply of Seeds.** His duty was to have a collection of seeds of the various crops to be grown such as Grain (*dhānya*), Flowers, Fruits, Vegetables (*śāka*), Herbs (*kanda*), Roots, Fibre-producing plants (*kshauma*) and Cotton (*kārpāsa*).

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**Agricultural Labour.** He was to employ in the work of cultivation the following classes of labourers viz., (1) Serfs (*Dāsa*) (2) Hired Labourers (*Karmakara*) and (3) Convicts condemned to labour (*Daṇḍapratikartā*).

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**Appliances for Cultivation.** He is to supply these labourers with all things necessary for the work of cultivation such as implements (*karshaṇa-yantra*) like 'plough, rope, sickle, together with bullocks.' Peasants must also be supplied with the supplementary assistance of Artisans (*Kāru*) such as the Blacksmith (*Karmāraḥ Ayaskāraḥ*), Carpenter (*Kuṭṭākaḥ Takshā*), the Digger (*Medaka or Khanaka or Bhedaka*), Rope-maker (*Rajjuvartakaḥ*) and destroyer of pests (*Sarpagrāhādi*).

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**Records of Rainfall.** A meteorological forecast of the different countries seems to have been attempted. The Western coast [(beyond the Ghats), *Aparānta*] and the Himalayan tarais (*Haimanya*) were singled out, as now, for the heaviest rainfall, the country of the Aśmakas on the Godāvarī (or *Āraṭṭhas* of the Panjab and Avanti for moderate rainfall, and the deserts (*Jāṅgala*) for the lowest. We may note that arrangements for recording rainfall were known in those days. “In the central Store-House (*Koshṭhāgāra*), there was to be kept a vessel (*kuṇḍa*) whose mouth should be 1 *aratni* wide, to serve as rain gauge (*varsha-māna*)” [II. 5]. It may be noted that 1 *aratni* = 24 *aṅgulas* = 1½ ft. [II. 20]. Countries irrigated from artificial canals (*Kulyāvāpa*) were of course in no want of water.

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**Means of Irrigation.** Fourfold means of artificial irrigation are mentioned, viz., manual irrigation, irrigation by water carried on the shoulder, irrigation by pumps (*sroto-yantraprāvartima*) and irrigation by letting in water from streams, lakes or wells, with the fourfold water-rates of ⅕, ¼, ⅓, and ¼ of the total produce respectively.

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Megasthenes also, as we have seen, confirms Kauṭilya in his mention of “the sluices by which water is let out from the main canals into other branches so that everyone may have an equal supply of it,” while the care which the empire of Chandragupta bestowed on irrigation is proved, as we have seen, by the inscription of Rudradāman I.

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**Agricultural Seasons.** The seasons for crops are also stated to be those for (1) wet crops, (2) winter crops (*haimanam*), (3) summer crops (*graishmikam*).

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**Variety of Crops.** The wet crops are mentioned as Rice (*Śāli* or *Vrīhi*), Coarse grain (*Kodrava*), Sesamum (*Tila*), Pepper, and Safforn (*Priyaṅgu*). These ought to be sown first in the rains (*Pūrvavāpaḥ*). Next come pulses called *mudga*, *māsha*.

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The last to be sown are *Kusumbha* (Saffron), *Masūra*, *Kuluttha*, *Yava* (Barley), *Godhūma* (Wheat), *Kalāya*, *Atasī* (Linseed), and *Sarshapa* (Mustard).

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**Food Crops.** It is also pointed out that the Rices (*śālyādi*) are the most important crops (*jyeshṭha*) because, as the commentator points out, these are the principal food crops which are grown with the least cost and trouble and yield a good harvest.

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Next come fruits like plantains (*Shaṇḍah Kadalyādi*).

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**Sugarcane.** The worst crop is sugarcane (*Ikshu*) because, as the commentator points out, ‘it is exposed to many pests like rats, it involves large outlay, and a vast amount of labour in cutting the canes, crushing them, and in boiling the extracted juice on pans.’

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**Varieties of Lands and Crops.** It is also stated that lands that are ‘beaten by foam’ (*phenāghāta*), i.e., those on the banks of rivers or marshy lands, are suitable for growing *Vallīphala* such as pumpkin, gourd and the like. The flooded lands (*parivāhāntāḥ*) are suitable for sugarcane (*Ikshu*), pepper (*Pippalī*) and grapes (*Mridvīkā*). Lands depending on wells (*Kūpa-paryantāḥ*) are good for vegetables (*śāka*) and roots (*mūla*). Lands in the vicinity of canals, lakes, or tanks (*haraṇīparyantāḥ*) are good for fodder (*Haritaka*). Lands between cultivated plots may be utilized to grow cloves, medicinal herbs and fragrant plants.

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**Medicinal Plants.** Medicinal plants are to be grown on different kinds of lands, marshy and dry, as required.

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Wages. Labourers (*Vishṭi*) in charge of orchards (*Shaṇḍa*) and gardens (*Vāṭa*) and of cattle, whether serf or hired, will be given food and the monthly wages of 1¼ *paṇa*.

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Cultivators were given half-share of the produce (*ardha-sītikāḥ*) and were to supply their own seeds and bullocks. But those who could not supply these but only their labour will have their share of produce reduced to ¼ or ⅕.

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It is stated that the Director of Agriculture must be proficient in *Kṛishitantra* (Agricultural Science), *Śulba-śāstra* (Mensuration), and *Vṛikshāyurveda* (Science of plant life).

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Superintendent of Store-House. (*Koshṭhāgārādhyaksha*) [II. 15]. State Store-or Ware-houses were set up at different centres under the system which permitted payment of taxes and dues to the State in kind. The Director of Agriculture had to despatch to the Superintendent of Store-house the agricultural produce of the crown lands of different localities (*sītā*). Next, he had to receive payments in kind of various dues levied by the State. These are thus enumerated: (1) *Piṇḍa-kara*, village cess (2) *Shaḍbhāga*, the State’s share of ⅙ of agricultural produce, (3) *Senābhakta*, military cess in the form of provisioning the army on march through the areas concerned (4) *Bali*, an extra impost of 10 to 20 *paṇas* levied on the village (5) *Kara*, State’s share of fruits grown (6) *Utsaṅga*, presents to king on festive occasions such as birth of a child (7) *Pārśva*, an emergency tax (8) *Parihīṇaka*, compensation for loss to crops caused by cattle (9) *Aupāyanika*, presents to the king (10) *Kaushṭheyaka*, tax on lands irrigated by the State tanks.

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All these heads of revenue paid in kind come under the general name of *Rāshṭra* as the revenue derived from the country side or rural tracts. The Superintendent had also to collect the dues payable to government from the sale of its agricultural products.

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Of the Store thus accumulated, half will be devoted to expenditure by Government and half will be kept in reserve as an insurance against afflictions to the country (like famines) (*Tato ardhaṁ jānapadānāṁ sthāpayet*). The Store will be replenished by new supply.

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It is also the duty of the Superintendent of Stores to personally supervise the increase or decrease caused to the grains as they are pounded (*kshuṇṇa*), frayed (*ghṛishṭa*), reduced to flour (*pishṭa*), or fried (*bhṛishṭa*) or dried after being soaked in water.

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Kauṭilya also gives calculations of the amounts of food obtainable from given quantities of grain of different kinds as they are cooked or treated in other ways, of oil that can be pressed from the different oil-seeds, and of thread that can be spun from given quantities of cotton (*Kārpāsa*) and flax or jute (*Kshauma*) fibre.

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Rations are prescribed for different classes of persons, men, women, and children, soldiers, commanders of the army (*pattīnāṁ mukhyānām*), queens and princes (*devīkumārāṇām*). They are also prescribed for different domestic animals.

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These regulations and details only show the amount of control which the officer in charge of State properties of so many kinds had to establish to ensure that there is no loss of income to the State from the various uses to which they are to be put.

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Lastly, one can have an idea of how the Storehouse will look like when one goes into it. He will find grain stacked up higher and higher without contact with the ground; jaggery bound round in ropes of grass; oils kept in vessels of earth or wood; and salt heaped up on the surface of the ground.

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Superintendent of Mines (*Ākarādhyaksha*) [II. 12]. The Mining Superintendent should be a scientific expert on his subject, with a knowledge of sciences called (1) *Śulba-śāstra* (2) *Dhātu-śāstra* (3) *Rasa-pāka* and (4) *Maṇi-rāga*, a knowledge of Mines, a knowledge of seams and veins of ores (*bhū-śirā-vijñāna*), Metallurgy, Science of Mercury, Gems, and precious stones. He was to prospect new mines and discover old ones by the signs of slags, ashes and the like, and ascertain the value of ores from their mechanical and chemical properties. Various kinds of ore are mentioned as being worked in those days, viz., those of Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead (*Sīsa*), Tin (*Trapu*), Iron (*Tīkshṇa*), Bitumen (*Śilājatu*). Various metallurgical processes were employed for treating the ores and purging them of impurities by use of alkalies and for softening metals.

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Commerce in commodities manufactured from mineral products was centralised (*ekamukham*). Manufacturers, buyers, and sellers of such commodities outside the prescribed locality (*anyatra*) were liable to punishment. Thus the State had a monopoly in the working of Mines, and in trade in their products. But Mines requiring a heavy capital outlay and much enterprise (*vyaya-kriyā-bhārikamākaram*) may be leased out to private persons on the basis of a share of the output (*bhāgena*) or a fixed royalty (*prakrayeṇa asyā-kārasya etāvat suvarṇādikaṁ rājārthe deyamiti paripaṇya*). Mines requiring small outlay are to be worked directly by the State (*lāghavikaṁ ātmanā kārayet*).

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The Superintendent of Mines was associated in his work with a few other officers in charge of allied work.

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Superintendent of Metals (*Lohādhyaksha*). He was entrusted with the work of manufacturing vessels (*karmāntān tadbhāṇḍa-ghaṭana-karmāṇi*) of such materials as Copper, Lead, Tin, Brass, Bell-metal and the like, and of business (*vyavahāra*) in such manufactures.

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Superintendent of Mint (*Lakshaṇādhyaksha Taṅkaśālādhyaksha*). He is to manufacture the following classes of coins: (1) *Rūpyārūpa* (silver coins) made up of 11 parts of silver, 4 parts of copper, and one part of any of the metals, iron, tin, lead or antimony (2) *Tāmrarūpa* (copper coins) 'made up of 4 parts of silver, 11 parts of copper, and 1 part of *Tīkshṇa* (iron or any other metal).' Each of these classes of coins was made in four denominations, e.g., 1, ½, ¼ and ⅛ *paṇa* for silver and 1, ½, ¼ and ⅛ *māsha* for copper, the last two of the copper coins being also named *kākaṇī* and *ardhakākaṇī*.

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According to the Commentator, *Rūpyārūpa* is the same as *Kārshāpaṇa*. It was of an alloy mainly composed of Silver and was acceptable to the government treasury (*Kośapraveśya*).

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The *Tāmrarūpa* was of an alloy mainly composed of copper and formed the coins of general currency (*vyavahārika*).

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It may be noted in this connection that the earliest indigenous coinage of India was represented by the standard coins (1) of gold called *Suvarṇa* (2) of silver called *Purāṇa* or *Dharaṇa* and (3) of copper called *Kārshāpaṇa*. The coinage was modelled on the native system of weights as given by Manu [VIII. 132 f.]. The basis of the system is the *ratti* (*raktika*) or *guñja* berry weighing on an average 1·83 grains or 0·118 grammes. The *Suvarṇa* was of 80 *ratis* = 146·4 grains = 9·48 grammes. No specimens of *Suvarṇa* have been traced. The silver *Purāṇa* or *Dharaṇa* weighed 32 *ratis* = 58·56 grains = 3·79 grammes and the copper *Kārshāpaṇa* was of the same weight as *Suvarṇa*. Vast hoards of these silver and copper coins and of their various multiples and subdivisions have been discovered all over India. These old coins are shaped like square or oblong. The silver coins appear cut from a flat sheet of metal and the copper ones of a bar. They are little more than weights of metal on which was stamped from time to time the symbol of the authority responsible for their genuineness and purity.

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There was, again, an officer charged with the regulation of currency, the *Rūpadarśaka*. He had to realize the following Mint charges, viz., *Rūpika*, a seignorage of 8 per cent ; *Vyāji*, 5 per cent, the profit accruing to government from the use of special weights and measures for the public; *Pārīkshika*, an assaying fee of ⅛ *paṇa* per cent.

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In commenting on these important Departments of Government, Kauṭilya says: "Mining is the source of the wealth (*Kośa*) of the State; wealth is at the root of the State's property; the earth is attained by the combination of both (*Ākaraprabhavaḥ Kośaḥ Kośāt Daṇḍaḥ prajāyate*).

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Another Superintendent of Mines (*Khanyādhyaksha*). There was another Superintendent of Mines called *Khanyādhyaksha* who had a more limited jurisdiction. He had to look after the business (*Karmāntān*) connected with conch-shells, pearls, and coral, diamonds, and precious stones, and salts, and the trade in such articles.

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Salt Superintendent (*Lavaṇādhyaksha*). The manufacture of salt was a government monopoly administered by the Salt Superintendent called *Lavaṇādhyaksha*. It was worked under a system of licences, on payment of a fixed fee, or a share of the output. Lessees of salt-fields had to pay rent (*prakraya*) and ⅙ of the salt (*Lavaṇabhāga*) manufactured by them. This salt the Superintendent sold at full market rates, and realized in addition a supertax of 5 per cent called *Vyājī* (derived from the difference between government and public measure), together with the extra tax of 8 per cent (*mūlya*) and the assaying fee of ⅛ *paṇa* (*rūpa*).

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Imported (*Āgantu*) salt was more heavily taxed. It had to part with a sixth and on this portion, when sold, were levied the premium of 5 per cent (*pañchakaṁ śataṁ vyājīṁ*) *Vyājī*, and 8 per cent *Rūpika*, besides a toll (*śulka*) and compensation (*vaidharaṇa*) for loss to revenue from salt imported and not home-made (*kretā śulkaṁ rājapanyāchchhedānurūpaṁ cha vaidharaṇaṁ dadyāt*).

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Adulteration of salt, and its manufacture without licence (*vilavaṇaṁ anisṛishṭopajīvī*) were punished except in the case of hermits (*vāṇaprastha*). Persons given to sacred learning (*śrotriya*), ascetics (*tapasvī*), and labourers not engaged on hire (*vishṭi*) are to get salt free of cost, provided it is for food and not trade (*bhaktalavaṇa*). Thus the salt-tax did not press heavily on the poor.

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Gold Superintendent (*Suvarṇādhyaksha*). There was an officer called *Suvarṇādhyaksha* who was in charge of the working of gold and silver in separate compartments, with his office located in a special building called the *Askhaśālā* [II. 13]. This was meant for manufacture of artistic works of gold and silver. But for the public, a shop was established on the high road (*viśikhāmadhye*) under an approved goldsmith. According to the Commentator, "his duty is to help the people in selling and buying gold, silver, and jewels." In this chapter, the *Arthaśāstra* gives instructions as to the methods of testing and distinguishing different qualities of gold, processes of manufacture of articles of gold and silver, of setting of jewels, and elaborate safeguards against fraud and theft on the part of workmen in the factory. The rule is that no one who is not an employee at the *Askhaśālā* can have admission into it. A trespasser will be beheaded (*Akshaśālāmānāyuto nopagachchhet abhigachchhan uchchhedyaḥ*). All workmen are also to have their body and dress searched before they enter or leave the factory (*vichita-vastra-hasta-guhyāḥ...praviśeyuḥ nishkāseyuścha*).

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State Goldsmith (*Sauvarṇika*). There is also a Chapter [II. 14] called *Viśikhāyāṁ Sauvarṇika-prachāraḥ*, "The goldsmith on the high road". It prescribes that the State goldsmith (*Sauvarṇika*) is to employ artisans (*āveśanibhiḥ śilpiśālīyaiḥ suvarṇakārādibhiḥ*) to work up the gold and silver of the town and country people. He is to see that the same quality and weight of the material are returned to the customer as are received by him.

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As regards coinage, it is laid down that in getting a *suvarṇa* coin (of 16 *māshas*) manufactured out of gold bullion, one *kākaṇī* (¼ *māsha*) weight of the metal is to be allowed as loss involved in the manufacture. Manufacture of gold and silver articles was not permitted in a shop not licensed by the State goldsmith (*Sauvarṇikenādṛishṭamanyatra vā prayogaṁ kārayato*).

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**Conservator of Forests (*Kupyādhyaksha*)** [II. 17]. There was a Superintendent in charge of State Forests and forest-products (called *Kupyādhyaksha*). He was to collect timber and other woods by employing the Forestguards (*Vanapāla*) and supervised the manufacture of works of wood (‘such as houses, carts and the like’). He was to employ on wages (*vetana*) foresters who knew intimately all parts of trees, top, trunk, branches, roots (*vṛikshamarmajña*) so as to decide which part might be cut off without damage to the tree for purposes, say, of fortifications (*durga-tāraṇārthe*). Wood-cutting against instructions was punishable except against emergencies where wood was required e.g., for a cart that broke down (*anyatra āpadbhyaḥ* as explained by the Commentator).

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Linked texts (8)

Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Aṣṭādhyāyī — Pāṇini, Sanskrit
Mānava Dharmaśāstra — Manu & Bhṛgu, Sanskrit
Bṛhatsaṃhitā — Varāhamihira, Sanskrit
Ἰνδικά — Μεγασθένης, Ancient Greek
Pillar Edict V — Prakrit
Pillar Edicts of Aśoka (Edicts I–IV) (ed. Bühler 1894) — Prakrit
Rummindeī Pillar Inscription — Prakrit